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bin Laden, were captured or killed. Authorities in Mahajan, Rahul. The New Crusade: America’s War on
several countries arrested alleged members of Al Terrorism. New York: Monthly Review, 2002.
Qaeda, but the international network has not been Reeve, Simon. The New Jackals: Ramzi Yousef, Osama bin
eradicated. Bin Laden’s role in enabling the attacks Laden, and the Future of Terrorism. Boston: Northeastern
University Press, 1999.
appeared to be confirmed by videotapes in which he
Snow, Donald. September 11, 2001: The New Face of War?
said that the September 11 attacks had been even more
New York: Pearson Higher Education, 2001.
destructive than he had hoped they would be.
Talbott, Strobe, and Nayan Chanda. The Age of Terror:
In the weeks following September 11, a series of
America and the World After September 11. New York:
letters containing anthrax spores were sent through Basic Books; Yale Center for the Study of Globalization,
the mail in the United States, ultimately killing five 2001.
people. No evidence was found to link the anthrax Wald, Matthew L. “Controllers Say Flow of Information on
attacks to Al Qaeda, but the anthrax scares contributed Hijacked Planes’ Course Was Slow and Uneven.”
to an atmosphere of uncertainty and even panic. New York Times, September 13, 2001, A5.
In response to the September 11 attacks, security Zernike, Kate, and Don Van Natta, Jr. “Hijackers’ Meticu-
has been considerably tightened on airplanes, lous Strategy of Brains, Muscle and Practice.” New York
in buildings, and in public areas. U.S. authorities Times, November 4, 2001, A1.
detained hundreds of people whose actions or immi-
gration status made them appear questionable, and
Bush created special military tribunals that could 17 NOVEMBER. See REVOLUTIONARY
try foreign nationals accused of terrorism. Such ORGANIZATION OF 17 NOVEMBER.
measures led to intense debates between those who
considered them necessary and those who considered
them an overreaction.
By December 2001, various detainees had been SHAKUR, ASSATA. See CHESIMARD,
cleared, and only one, Moussaoui, faced charges stem- JOANNE.
ming from the attacks. Moussaoui, a French citizen,
faced the charges in a civilian rather than a military
court. In a federal court in Virginia, Moussaoui was
charged on six counts of conspiracy in the attacks; four SHALLAH, RAMADAN ABDULLAH
of those counts carried the possibility of the death (1955– )
penalty. His trial is now scheduled to begin in June 2003.
aka Ramadan Abdullah, Ramadan Abdullah
See also AL QAEDA; ANTHRAX; MOHAMED ATTA; OSAMA al-Shallah
BIN LADEN; HIJACKING; MILITANT ISLAM; ZACARIAS
MOUSSAOUI; TALIBAN; UNITED STATES V. ZACARIAS
Dr. Ramadan Abdullah Shallah, a former part-time
MOUSSAOUI INDICTMENT;WAR ON TERRORISM; WORLD
TRADE CENTER BOMBING (1993) professor at the University of South Florida in Tampa,
made national headlines in 1995 when he left his job
in the United States to lead the militant group Pales-
Further Reading
tinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). (The PIJ was founded in
Eggen, Dan, and Bob Woodward. “U.S. Develops Clearer Egypt in the late 1970s by Palestinian students, but is
Picture of Plot: Hijackers Spent $500,000; at Least 4 now based in Syria.)
Trained in Afghan Camps.” Washington Post, September Born in 1955 in the Gaza Strip, which was then
29, 2001, A1. under Egyptian administration, Shallah taught eco-
Griffith, Victoria, et al. “The Hijackers’ Tale: How the Men nomics at the University of Gaza in the mid-1980s. He
of September 11 Went Unnoticed.” Financial Times, received a doctoral degree in Islamic and Middle
November 30, 2001, 11.
Gunaratna, Rohan. Inside Al Qaeda: Global Network of Eastern studies from England’s University of Durham
Terror. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. in 1990, and wrote many articles on the economics of
Kleinfield, N. R. “U.S. Attacked: Hijacked Jets Destroy Middle Eastern countries.
Twin Towers and Hit Pentagon in Day of Terror.” Shallah arrived in Tampa, Florida, in 1991 and
New York Times, September 12, 2001, A1. spent four years teaching political science at the