Page 109 - A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems

104 A COMPrEHENSIVE GUIdE TO SOlAr ENErGy SySTEMS

of the region are ideally placed to coordinate the great number of stakeholders who must
be involved in any viable solution.
We have considered the solar cell and battery requirements for a small-scale rural
solar energy collection and storage system capable of generating a minimum of
−1
50 kW h month . The major economic and environmental costs of such a system are
the batteries. The current best choice batteries for SSA are lead-acid batteries, despite
lower efficiencies and shorter lifetimes than li-ion and Aquion batteries. This is justified
by the ready availability of lead-acid batteries, the domestic manufacturing capabilities
in South Africa and elsewhere in SSA, relatively low costs, and existing infrastructure for
refurbishment and closed-loop recycling. Maximum circular economy benefits would be
achieved if energy companies engaged with key organizations involved at all stages of
lead-acid battery lifecycles, and considered appropriate business models to maximize re-
turn of batteries at end-of-life such as ‘lease and take back’ schemes, or deposit schemes
for batteries.
Future developments for li-ion batteries initiated by the South African government
may in time enhance the benefits of li-ion for this application, however, high costs, criti-
cal materials issues, and poor prospects for refurbishment and remanufacturing cast
doubt over the suitability of this technology for the proposed system. Even with end-of-
life infrastructure in place for li-ion batteries, the ability to refurbish lead-acid batter-
ies, thereby extending their working life, presents greater opportunities for valorization
than could be achieved with recycling, and so their use holds greater potential value for
SSA economies, and therefore greater opportunities for sustainable development and
employment creation.
Whichever battery technology is used, optimum battery use, maintenance, and disposal
will require knowledge of the technology. Thus any system installation also requires an
additional basic education and training package on the benefits of solar energy, the proper
operation, maintenance, and replacement of components, and full system performance
monitoring and analysis for problem/fault prediction/finding.

References
[1] World Energy Outlook, WEO 2016 Electricity Access database; International Energy Agency
(IEA), 2016. Available from: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/resources/energydevelopment/
energyaccessdatabase/.
[2] Kalogirou S: Solar energy engineering, 2nd ed., Boston, 2009, Academic Press.
[3] Fraunhofer ISE and PSE AG, Photovoltaics report; Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems;
Freiburg, 2017.
[4] IrENA: Solar PV in Africa: costs and markets, International renewable Energy Agency, 2016.
[5] Charles rG, davies Ml, douglas P, Third generation photovoltaics; early intervention for circular
economy and a sustainable future. In: Electronics Goes Green 2016+ (EGG) 2016; 1–8.
[6] SPECIFIC, Buildings as Power Stations; 2016. Available from: http://specific.eu.com/.
[7] SPECIFIC, Active Classroom; 2016. Available from: http://www.specific.eu.com/assets/downloads/
casestudy/Active_Classroom_Web_Case_Study.pdf.