Page 132 - Advances in Eco-Fuels for a Sustainable Environment

104 Advances in Eco-Fuels for a Sustainable Environment

presence of CH 3 ONa catalyst. Some of the properties exhibited by safflower oil bio-
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diesel include a kinematic viscosity of 4.17–4.41mm /s, a cetane number of 45.21, a
cloud point of 2°C, and a pour point of 8°C [55].

Polanga oil (Calophyllum inophyllum)
Polanga (Calophyllum inophyllum) belongs to the Clusiaceae family. It is found in the
tropical region and is believed to be indigenous to India. The tree grows at altitudes
from 0 to 200m and in the areas with 1000–5000mm rain per year. The polanga tree
grows up to 25m in height and is sensitive to frost and fire. The polanga tree bears fruit
with diameter 2–4cm. The endocarp and a thin layer of pulp surround the seed. About
100–200 seeds can be obtained per kg of fruit. The polanga oil, which is not refined, is
dark green and is used as the feedstock for the production of biodiesel. Both saturated
fatty acids (24.96wt%) and unsaturated fatty acids (72.65wt%) are present in Polanga
oil. The saturated fatty acids present are palmitic acid (12.01wt%) and stearic acid
(12.95wt%) and the unsaturated fatty acids present are oleic acid (34.09wt%), linoleic
acid (38.26wt%), and linolenic acid (0.3wt%) [17]. As per the work carried out by
Sahoo et al. [56], the maximum conversion of polanga oil to its corresponding methyl
esters obtained has been around 85% in a reaction time of 90min for a methanol to oil
ratio of 6:1 at a reaction temperature of 70°C and using KOH catalyst. Some of
the properties exhibited by polanga oil methyl esters include a kinematic viscosity
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of 2.87mm /s, a calorific value of 44.22, a flash point of 76°C, a cloud point of
6.5°C, and a pour point of 3°C [56].

Tall oil
Tall oil is a byproduct produced from a conventional kraft pulp mill. It is a mixture of
triglyceride oils, fatty acids, resin acids, and other terpenoids. Tall oil is rich in oleic
acid, has less linolenic acid, and almost no linoleic acid. Thus, tall oil fatty acid differs
from other vegetable oils and this difference reduces the gum formation in tall oil bio-
diesel when compared to other vegetable oil biodiesels [12]. Not much work has been
carried out in the production of biodiesel from tall oil.

4.2.2 WCO as feedstock for biodiesel
After using the edible vegetable oils such as palm oil, sunflower oil, and corn oil for
frying several times, the oil that is obtained is WCO. The WCO has slightly different
physical and chemical properties because of the changes that occur during frying [57].
Chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, polymerization, and oxidation will occur due
to high temperature during the frying process, which leads to an increase of free fatty
acid (FFA) levels. Large food processing and service facilities form the source of
waste vegetable oils [11]. WCO costs 2–3 times less than fresh vegetable oil, which
leads to a significant reduction in the total processing cost. The presence of free fatty
acids and water is one of the drawbacks for the use of WCO in the production of bio-
diesel. The presence of free fatty acids results in saponification and the presence of
water in the oil sample leads to hydrolysis during the transesterification reaction.