Page 218 - Applied Photovoltaics
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Switzerland had a PV program stemming from a 10 year moratorium on nuclear
power (Real & Ludi, 1991). An R&D program commenced in 1987, followed by
testing of a 3 kW prototype system. In 1988, 10 × 3 kW p PV systems, using a
specially-designed 3 kW high-efficiency inverter, were installed. A one-to-one
buying and selling cost for the electricity used or produced by the households has
been arranged with the utility. By 1990, 100 systems had been installed (Ibid.). Their
‘Energy 2000’ project aimed to have 50 MW p of grid-connected PV installed by
2000, although only 21 MW p had been installed by 2003 (IEA-PVPS, 2004).
One aim of the Swiss program is to reduce PV land use requirements. Therefore, in
addition to the rooftop systems, several large arrays have been installed along
motorway sound barriers, providing a very visible demonstration of the technology
(Nordmann & Clavadetscher. 2004). This idea has since been applied elsewhere in
Europe. Recent Swiss support measures that strongly facilitate consumer investment,
are outlined by Bonvin (2004).
Austria began a ‘200 kW Photovoltaic Rooftop Program’ in 1992. Financial support
is provided to householders for building-integrated, utility-connected PV systems up
to 3.6 kW p and more recently via a feed-in tariff.
Germany has had the most spectacularly effective incentive schemes in Europe
(Sawin, 2004). The ‘1000 Roofs Demonstration Program’ began in 1991 and the
more ambitious ‘100,000 Roofs Program’ in 2000. These provided low-interest loans
but have subsequently been replaced by the 2004 ‘Renewable Energy Law’. This
mandates a feed-in tariff, which is intended to allow the capital cost of the PV system
to be paid back through power sales to the grid over the system life. The tariff
available decreases by 6.5% each year from 2006 (Schmela, 2004; Siemer, 2004).
These approaches have encouraged very rapid growth in rooftop systems, some very
large. By 2004, investors were favouring the establishment of huge ‘solar parks’ of
ground-mounted PV to profit from the advantages of scale and because of a perceived
insufficiency of available large roofs (Paul, 2004). Sales are expected to grow by 50%
in 2004 (Paul, 2004) and reach €1 billion according to the German Solar Industry
Association (Renewable Energy World, 2004a).
Spain in 1998 set feed-in tariffs comparable to Germany’s, but the market failed to
grow as well owing to remaining barriers, such as the freedom for utilities to set high
charges for connection and the need for producers selling power to the grid to register
as businesses (Sawin, 2004). A revised Spanish feed-in tariff scheme was approved
early in 2004 and is expected to be a great boost to the industry there (Renewable
Energy World, 2004b), although it has been strongly criticised for its limited funding
(Hirshman, 2004b).
Italy’s rooftop PV support program, begun in 2001, became a victim of regional
politics and bureaucracy and disappointingly resulted in only 2 MW p of installed
capacity three years later (Hirshman, 2004c). A new feed-in tariff, based on
experience in Germany and elsewhere, is expected to come into force in late 2004.
A single support scheme for the whole European Union has been proposed for
introduction in 2005 (Kjaer, 2004). Until that might occur, there is a range of
programs through different European countries.
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