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Scientific Research and Communication

Note that nowadays geographic proximity plays no role (or maybe just
a minor role) in the definition of an invisible college.

2.4 A THREE-TIER EVALUATION SYSTEM

Evaluation as such is discussed in later chapters, but here we already make
a few observations. Besides the two-tier communication system—online
preprint versions and formal publications, see 2.3.2—one may distinguish
a three-tier evaluation system applied within the formal publication tier.
This three-tier evaluation system consists of counting publications, count-
ing usage e.g., downloads, and counting received citations. More about
scientific evaluations can be found in Chapter 8, Research Evaluation.

2.4.1 Peer Reviewed Publications

Different aspects of publishing have been discussed in the previous sec-
tions, yet before documents are published and counted they must usually
get past the peer-review-hurdle. Indeed, the oldest evaluation level
among the three mentioned in this chapter is the peer review process of
submitted journal articles. Nowadays, most journals are peer-reviewed,
but some parts may not. Journals such as Nature have large sections that
do not present original research, but are actually scientific journalism.
These sections are written by the journal’s editorial office or by paid free-
lance writers. According to Brown (2004) peer review—in general, not
just for journals—can be defined as follows: “Scientific peer review is the
evaluation of scientific research findings or proposals for competence, signifi-
cance and originality, by qualified experts (peers) who research and submit
work for publication in the same field.” Peer review also takes place when
evaluating grant applications, during promotion or tenure decisions of indi-
vidual scientists; or when starting, evaluating or closing schools or depart-
ments. In the context of scientific publication activities peer review is
further discussed in Chapter 3, Publishing in Scientific Journals.

2.4.2 Usage
The term downloads is clearly related to the age of electronic publications
and as such its use is a relatively young development. Besides article down-
loads an electronic journal may also monitor article views and keep track
of links to each article (Rousseau, 2002b). Of course, also the number of
downloads in a repository of e-prints or postprints may be collected. In