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tual, ideological, and pedagogical formalism in China, Confucianism—gave them the sobriquet of tigers or
and its influences were pervasive in Korea,Vietnam, and dragons of capitalist success.The position was that they
Japan. were successful capitalist economies because of Confu-
cianism.Whether mainland China for two millennia did
Modern Fate and New not develop capitalism in spite or because of Confucian-
Confucianism ism has not been satisfactorily answered by the claimants.
As China met the onrush of modern civilization from The bursting of the economic bubble in the late 1990s
mid-nineteenth century on, Confucianism came under somewhat shook their faith in this belief.
attack for having supported the entire Chinese body As modern society’s rampant individualism has taken
politic and social hierarchy. Intellectuals such as Hu Shi its toll on the collective conscience, New Confucianism
(1891–1962), Chen Duxiu (1879–1942), Wu Yu has gained adherents who defend its collective ethic
(1872–1949), and Lu Xun (1881–1936) called for its against individualism and debate its merits with pro-
abolition, chanting “Crush the Confucian Establishment ponents of individualistic human rights. The debate
(Dadao Kongjiadian)!” and hailing “Science” and “Democ- continues.
racy.” This iconoclasm produced in reaction a twentieth-
Daniel W.Y. Kwok
century neo-traditionalism, nurtured by the call of Zhang
Zhidong (1837–1909) in 1898, when China was at the See also Confucius; Mencius
nadir of national strength in face of foreign encroach-
ments, to preserve Chinese culture for substance (ti) and
Further Reading
exploit Western culture for application (yong).While the
Chan, W. (1963). Source book in Chinese philosophy. Princeton, NJ:
logic of this saying is faulty in reserving for one culture
Princeton University Press.
only morality and for another only instrumentality, it was Chang, C. (1957). The development of Neo-Confucian thought. New York:
eminently satisfying emotionally. Chinese who feared Bookman Associates.
de Bary,W.T., & Bloom, I. (Ed.). (1999). Sources of Chinese tradition:Vol.
and bewailed the passing of Confucian efficacy embraced 1 (2nd ed). New York: Columbia University Press.
the sentiment. Thinkers in the twentieth century such as de Bary,W.T., & Lufrano, R. (Ed.). (2000). Sources of Chinese tradition:
Vol. 2 (2nd ed). New York: Columbia University Press.
Liang Soumin (1893–1988) and Xiong Shili (1884–
de Bary, W. T., & Weimin, T. (Ed.). (1998). Confucianism and human
1968) constituted the first generation of the New Con- rights. New York: Columbia University Press.
fucianism (Xin rujia). Fingarette, H. (1972). Confucius: The secular as sacred. New York:
Harper & Row.
After 1950, a second generation of New Confucianists Fung,Y. (1952-53). A history of Chinese philosophy (D. Bodde, Trans.).
arose in Hong Kong in contradistinction to intellectuals Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Legge, J. (1960). The Chinese classics:Vol. 1. Confucian Analects, the great
both on the Communist mainland and in Nationalist Tai-
learning, the doctrine of the mean. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univer-
wan. Amidst manifestos and educational endeavors, sity Press. (Original work 1893–1895)
scholars such as Tang Junyi, Xu Fuguan, and Mou Legge, J. (1960). The Chinese Classics:Vol. 2.The works of Mencius. Hong
Kong: Hong Kong University Press. (Original work 1893–1895)
Zongsan envisaged a new Confucian synthesis combin- Mote, F. (1971). The intellectual foundations of China. New York:
ing Confucian moral life with Western modes of living. Knopf.
Nivison, D. S., & Wright, A. F. (Eds.). (1959). Confucianism in action.
Their message brought forth a third generation of intel-
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
lectuals, mostly university professors who wrote in the Schrecker, J. (1991).The Chinese revolution in historical perspective. New
public sphere from the 1970s.This trend coincided and York: Praeger.
Shryock, J. (1932). The origin of the state cult of Confucius: An introduc-
sometimes coalesced with the rise of an enthusiastic tory study. New York and London: The Century Co.
belief that Confucianism was compatible with capitalism. Weber, M. (1951). The religion of China (H. H. Gerth,Trans.). Glencoe,
IL: Free Press.
Economic leaps in Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong
Wright,A. F. (Ed.). (1960). The Confucian persuasion. Stanford, CA: Stan-
Kong, and Japan—all nations historically touched by ford University Press.