Page 160 - Encyclopedia Of World History

510 berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Democracy gives every man a right to be his own
oppressor. • James Russell Lowell (1819–1891)

the judicial, legislative, and executive branches, prohibit- izens), he limited the influence of the aristocratic Coun-
ing the subordination of any branch. He opposed vio- cil of the Best Men (Areopagus) and enabled all adult
lence that merely enhances the authority of oppressive male Athenians to vote and be elected. This partial
rulers rather than protect public order.These ideas, being empowerment was a compromise between various
the modern foundations of constitutional democracy, classes and contesting interests and was in contrast to the
affected subsequent practices in the Western world, conservative ways of Athens’s main rival, Sparta. Never-
including British, French, and U.S. practices. theless, because he did not please a certain constituency,
Solon became so controversial that he left Athens, and
History tyranny prevailed for decades.
Since people first assembled in their poleis during the Cleisthenes (c. 570–507 BCE) continued Solon’s con-
Archaic Age (800–500 BCE) in Greek colonies to decide stitutional reorganization. He made the Assembly of the
matters of public policy, people have faced the dilemma People the sole legislative body, subordinating magis-
of how best to maximize participation while introducing trates to its jurisdiction, increased the influence of the
a convenient forum for managing affairs efficiently. Direct Boule, deprived the Areopagus of effective power, and
democracy sounds ideal. Reality, however, may be quite ensured wide and deep participation in public life. Cleis-
different. A deliberative, representative polity (political thenes made Athenian government more accountable to
organization) may gain viability by establishing an insti- an inclusive, active political community and thus a role
tutional body for regular legislation by a limited amount model for subsequent civilizations.
of members, elected periodically and fairly.
Britain
Athens Centuries later Britain’s Westminster tradition involved
In Greece the Athenian lawmaker Solon (c. 630–560 unwritten conventions, coupled with the constitutional
BCE) presented an early version of a participatory consti- monarchy variant of parliamentarianism. Beginning with
tutional democracy, blended with elements of social jus- the Magna Carta of 1215–1225 and culminating with
tice, in a commercial and cultural center. Earning his the Glorious Revolution during the seventeenth century,
distinction as a poet, he purported to correct the excesses a growing degree of universal suffrage for the middle
of exclusive and oppressive aristocratic control of gov- class, independent judiciary, civil rights, and more open
ernment. Wealthy landowners used their leverage to political practices replaced the rule of the monarchy and
exploit a severe economic crisis to deprive poorer town the aristocracy.
dwellers and peasants of their property and freedom or From a system prevailing only in Western countries,
to force them into exile. Solon was chosen as a chief mag- British (and, to a much lesser extent, Dutch, French, Por-
istrate with broad authority in 594 BCE by the ruling class tuguese, and Spanish) colonialism spread constitutional
that he subsequently challenged. His reforms aimed to democracy in communities of European settlers to North
improve a flawed system, with roots in the Draconian America, Oceania (lands of the central and south Pacific
code (a severe code of laws held to have been framed by Ocean), and southern Africa, although indigenous resi-
the Athenian lawmaker Draco) of 620 BCE, by limiting dents were usually deprived of its benefits. European co-
the absolute power of the upper class. lonialism also introduced constitutional democracy to
Solon introduced a more humane and balanced legal Africa,Asia,and Latin America.However,due to the hard-
code to help debtors and curtailed the influence of the ships of economic exploitation endured by the colonized,
rich. By enhancing the Assembly of the People by creat- ideas of freedom and human rights reflected by constitu-
ing the Boule (a multiethnic council of middle-income cit- tional democracy were tinged by suspicions of hypocrisy.