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Soviet elites and undermining revolutionary legitimacy. Cohen, A. (1997). Russian imperialism: Development and crisis. West-
By the mid-1980s, military overextension and economic port, CT: Praeger.
Danilevskii, N. I. (1965). Rossiia i Evropa [Russia and Europe]. New
contraction convinced sections of the governing elite York: Johnson Reprint. (Original work published 1869)
that the empire had become prohibitively expensive. Dibb, P. (1986). The Soviet Union:The incomplete superpower. London:
Macmillan.
Under Mikhail Gorbachev, who led the nation from
Foursov, Y., & Pivovarov, A. (1995–7). Russkaia systema [The Russian
1985 to 1991, an attempt at structural reform (pere- System]. Rubezhi [Boundaries], 1–10. Moscow: Vremia.
stroika), intended to regenerate economic growth, end Friedrich, C., & Brzezinski, Z. (1956). Totalitarian dictatorship and
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the Cold War, and restore faith in the Soviet system Gumilev, L. N. (1992). Ot Rusi k Rossii: ocherki etnicheskoi istorii [From
instead fully exposed the incompatibility of socialism and Rus’ to Russia: Essays on ethnological history]. Moscow: EKOPROS.
Halperin, C. (1985). Russia and the Golden Horde:The Mongol impact on
empire and transformed the USSR’s composition as a
Medieval Russian history. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
union of nominally sovereign republics into a liability. Herzen,A. (1907). Rossiia i Russkie [Russia and the Russians]. Moscow:
Gorbachev’s refusal to prop up and subsidize the unpop- Tipographia Russkago t-va. (Original work published 1847)
Johnson, C. (2000). Blowback: The costs and consequences of American
ular Communist governments in Eastern Europe resulted empire (p. 3-33). New York: Owl Books.
in the revolutions of 1989, which, together with the ero- Khodarkovsky, M. (2002). Russia’s steppe frontier:The making of a colo-
nial empire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
sion of Party power and economic chaos in the Soviet
Kotkin, S. (2001). Armageddon averted:The Soviet collapse, 1970–2000.
Union itself, prompted the rise of powerful secessionist Oxford, UK: Oxford University.
movements in the individual republics, including the LeDonne, J. (1997). The Russian empire and the world, 1700–1917:The
geopolitics of expansion and containment. Oxford, UK: Oxford
Russian Federation itself. In 1991, the new republican University.
presidents dissolved the Union, but the collapse of the Lieven, D. (2000). Empire: The Russian empire and its rivals. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Soviet empire was not inevitable, and, by 2004, new
Martin,T. (2001). The affirmative action empire: Nations and nationalism
imperial rumblings were evident. in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Pipes, R. (1974). Russia under the old regime. New York: Scribner’s.
Boris Stremlin Poe, M. (2003). The Russian moment in world history. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
See also Art—Russia; Cold War; Communism and Social- Rywkin, M. (Ed.). (1988). Russian colonial expansion to 1917. London:
Mansell.
ism; Détente; Eastern Europe; Lenin, Vladimir; Marx,
Shanin,T. (Ed.). (1983). Late Marx and the Russian road: Marx and “the
Karl; Revolution—Russia; Revolutions, Communist; peripheries of capitalism.” New York: Monthly Review.
Stalin, Joseph; World War II Taagepera, R. (1988).An overview of the growth of the Russian Empire.
In M. Rywkin (Ed.), Russian colonial expansion to 1917. London:
Mansell.
Vernadsky, G. (1953). The Mongols and Russia. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
Further Reading Vernadsky, G. (1959). The origins of Russia. Oxford, UK: Clarendon
Brower, D., & Lazzerini, E. (Eds.). (1997). Russia’s Orient: Imperial bor- Press.
derlands and peoples, 1700–1917. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Uni- Wallerstein, I. (1974). The modern world-system: Capitalist agriculture
versity Press. and the origins of the European world-economy in the sixteenth century
Cherniavsky, M. (1959). Khan or Basileus: An aspect of Russian (p. 301-325). New York: Academic Press.
Mediaeval political history. Journal of the History of Ideas, 20(4), 459– Wallerstein, I. (1991). Geopolitics and geoculture: Essays on the changing
476. world-system (p. 1-15). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Christian, D. (1997). Imperial and Soviet Russia: Power, privilege and the Wittfogel, K. (1957). Oriental despotism: A comparative study of total
challenge of modernity. New York: St. Martin’s Press. power. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Chubarov, A. (1999). The fragile empire: A history of imperial Russia. Yanov, A. (1981). The origins of autocracy: Ivan the Terrible in Russian
New York: Continuum. history. (S. Dunn Trans.). Berkeley: University of California Press.