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Psychophysiology of Resilience to Stress 123

experimenter) while experimenters recorded their facial expressions, cardio-
vascular reactivity (blood pressure, arterial pulse, heart rate), and cortisol
reactivity. The experimenters then coded the participants’ facial expressions

for signs of anger, disgust, and fear. Although these facial expressions are all
related to negative emotion, anger and disgust tend to occur more specifi -
cally in association with certainty and control, whereas fear is more specifi -
cally related to appraisals of uncertainty and no control (Smith & Ellsworth,
1985). Lerner et al. (2005) observed that expressions of fear were positively
correlated with cardiovascular and cortisol reactivity whereas expressions of
anger and disgust were negatively correlated with cardiovascular and corti-
sol reactivity. Th ese findings suggest that the level of perceived control exerts

a direct influence upon emotional response to stress, which in turn aff ects
physiological reactivity.
Lerner et al. (2005) further reported that trait optimism (associated
with high perceived control and resilience) mediated all of the observed
relationships between facial expressions and physiology. Specifi cally, trait
optimism predicted reduced cardiovascular and cortisol reactivity to

task-related stress. Th is finding is consistent with the studies of hardiness
as a personality component of resilience. Hardiness has been defi ned as
being related to three major factors—commitment, control, and challenge
(Kobasa, Maddi & Kahn, 1982)—and has further been shown to exert an

influence upon physical as well as mental health (Florian, Mikulincer &
Taubman, 1995; Kobasa, Maddi & Kahn, 1982). In a study of Israeli army
recruits who were assessed for hardiness and mental health before and

after a 4-month combat training period, soldiers who had higher levels of
perceived control at the outset of training were found to have less mental
distress and more positive signs of good mental health at the end of the
training period (Florian, Mikulincer & Taubman, 1995).

Confidence in Coping

Similar to perceived control is confidence in an individual’s own ability to

cope with stress. Studies of resilience indicate that individuals who are resil-
ient to stress tend to possess a strong sense of control as well as a high level

of confidence or competence (Cowen, Wyman & Work, 1996; Florian et al.,
1995; Masten et al., 1999). However, we believe that it is important to under-
stand and approach perceived control (of a stressful event and its outcome)

and confidence (in the ability to cope with stress and its outcome) as sepa-
rable constructs. In situations where perceived control is low, that is, where
it is apparently not possible to prevent or modify an expected stressor, a high
degree of confidence in an individual’s ability to cope with stress may serve

to mediate emotional reactivity to anticipation of the expected stressor. For
example, anticipating the certain impending death of a terminally ill family

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