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Resilience and Personality 227

being outside the individual’s control (Atienza, Stephens & Townsend, 2004).
There is also evidence that individuals with an internal locus of control, who

tend to assume responsibility for the outcomes of their own actions (Rotter,
1966), may feel particularly threatened by uncontrollable events (Tomaka &
Blascovich, 1994; Tomaka et al., 1999).
Another possible disadvantage of a generalized expectation of positive
outcomes is that it may lead the optimist to underestimate the seriousness
of a potentially threatening situation and thus to invest too little eff ort in

coping with it. This is particularly problematic in circumstances that require
careful attention and consideration of positive as well as negative informa-
tion to protect oneself or other people. Research examining the eff ects of
emotions on cognitive appraisal has demonstrated that people who experi-

ence negative affect tend to apply more stringent standards when they are
asked to evaluate potentially problematic events (Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003;

Schwarz & Skurnik, 2003). Thus, when faced with threatening situations, it

may be more adaptive to maintain flexible and balanced expectations than

to be biased toward indiscriminately positive appraisals. The ability to fl ex-
ibly appraise highly threatening or stressful situations has been referred to as
“hardiness” in personality and health psychology research (Gentry & Kobasa,
1984; Kobasa, 1979; Kobasa, Maddi & Courington, 1981; Kobasa, Maddi &
Kahn, 1982; Kobasa, Maddi, Puccetti & Zola, 1985; Kobasa & Puccetti, 1983;
Suls & Rittenhouse, 1990; Westman, 1990).

Hardiness

The construct known as hardiness was first conceived by Kobasa (1979) to

describe a constellation of personality characteristics apparent in individuals
who exhibit surprisingly low levels of illness in response to highly stressful

life events. Specifically, Kobasa found that stress-resistant or “hardy” indi-

viduals generally (1) believe that they can control or influence events, (2)
demonstrate commitment to activities, relationships, and self by adhering to
distinctive values, goals and priorities in life, and (3) seek meaning in their
lives and thus view adverse life events and other changes as challenges rather
than as threats (Kobasa, 1979).
Although hardy and optimistic individuals share a belief in their abil-
ity to master stressful situations, hardy individuals are able to recognize the
possible benefi ts of a challenging situation as well as the reality of potential
danger and loss. We propose that this unique ability—to maintain a diff er-
entiated view of positive as well as negative information—is indicative of a

more flexible appraisal style that enables hardy individuals to manage dif-
ficult circumstances and life events in a highly adaptive way.

The tendency to find positive meaning in life is considered by some

researchers as the defining characteristic of hardiness and as a key contributor

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