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Resilience and Personality 233

of emotion regulation distinguishes between antecedent emotion self-
regulation strategies that influence the occurrence of an emotional episode

(e.g., angry outburst) and response-focused regulatory processes that operate

after the onset of an emotional response (e.g., regulating feelings or expres-

sions of disappointment after receiving bad news). Antecedent strategies
include active selection or avoidance of situations that may trigger negative
emotions, actions taken to change a situation in order to modify its (poten-
tial) emotional impact, selective focus on emotional aspects of a situation,
and cognitive reappraisal of the meaning of a situation that may provoke an
unwanted or negative emotional response. Response-focused self-regulation
strategies include enhancing or suppressing the experience or the expression
of an emotional response (Gross, 1998a, b, 1999).
Applying this theoretical framework to hardiness, the appraisal style of
hardy individuals would fall under the category of antecedent regulation.
Note, however, that our conceptualization of hardy appraisal style is not
limited to the type of intentional and conscious antecedent and response-
focused regulatory strategies that are emphasized in Gross’ model of emo-
tional self-regulation. Rather, we view the adaptive cognitive style of hardy
individuals as a manifestation of dispositional appraisal-based fl exibility
that involves both conscious goal-directed and automatic or habitual emo-
tion-regulatory processes. Similarly, in our following discussion of expres-

sive flexibility, we consider both conscious and automatic or habitual uses of
expression and suppression of emotion in response to stress and discuss their
potential benefits and drawbacks. We will argue that the ability to fl exibly

shift between these two regulatory strategies is most conducive to a resilient
trajectory. We also highlight the crucial role played by positive emotions in
this process.
The ability to express and perceive emotions plays a crucial role in child

development and continues to serve a myriad of communicative and regula-
tory functions throughout the human life span. The experience and expres-

sion of emotion provide structure to interpersonal encounters (Averill, 1980),
help to maintain social order (Keltner, 1995; Rozin, Lowery, Imada & Haidt,
1999), and support awareness of the needs, desires, and behavioral intentions
of oneself and others.
By the same token, the suppression of emotion has been linked to various

adaptive costs. Defined as the conscious inhibition of emotion while emo-
tionally aroused (Gross & Levenson, 1993), emotion suppression has been
linked to poorer self-reported and objective memory (Richards & Gross,
2000), increased sympathetic activation (Gross, 1998a; Gross & Levenson,
1993, 1997), intrusive and ruminative thought (Pennebaker, 1993, 1995;
Pennebaker & Beall, 1986; Pennebaker & Seagal, 1999; Pennebaker &
Susman, 1988), and reduced rapport and less willingness to affi liate in dyadic
partnership (Butler et al., 2003). As a trait-based regulation style, suppression

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