Page 83 - Biobehavioral Resilence to Stress

60 Biobehavioral Resilience to Stress

leadership doctrine emphasizes character-based leadership and presumes
that leadership characteristics will directly or indirectly infl uence soldiers’
behavior. Specific values and attributes such as integrity and honor are thus

regarded as crucial elements of effective leadership, warranting careful culti-

vation in the leader development process (Campbell & Dardis, 2004).
Action and Behavior

Finally, all theories of leadership recognize the importance of leader action.

Leaders influence followers not only through their observable personal
characteristics (who they are) but also through their behavior (what they do).

Virtually all researchers have concluded that effective leaders act in ways
that (1) reinforce and strengthen group processes and (2) aid followers in
achieving organizational as well as personal goals.
Investigators have long recognized two essential styles of behavior as crit-

ical to effective leadership. These have been described by diff erent researchers

as task-oriented and people-oriented behavior (Blake & Mouton, 1964; Fiedler,
1971), initiation of structure and consideration (Stogdill, 1974), directive/
achievement-oriented style and supportive/participative style (House &
Mitchell, 1975), and telling/selling style and participative/delegating style
(Hersey & Blanchard, 1993). Whatever its stylistic label, eff ective leadership

requires that an individual employ influence to help the group accomplish its
objectives and simultaneously maintain or enhance interpersonal relation-
ships and group cohesiveness. For example, even before Ernest Shackleton’s
ill-fated expedition began, tensions among members of his team threatened
to disrupt group performance. Animosity had developed between the highly
educated, mostly upper-class scientists and the working-class crew of sailors,
carpenters, and ship’s hands. Shackleton intervened and was able to shape his
diverse group of explorers into a tight, cohesive team. Several sophisticated
theoretical models (Fiedler & Garcia, 1987; Hersey & Blanchard, 1993; House &
Mitchell, 1975; Vroom & Yetton, 1973) have been put forth to address the
question of what situational variables shape the actions of eff ective leaders.
Although these models differ in their details, we find consensus between the

two most compelling and elaborate. These models (Hersey & Blanchard, 1993;

House & Mitchell, 1975) agree that maximum influence and willing compli-
ance occur when leaders provide followers with what they need when they

need it, that is, effective leaders provide direction and guidance when purpose
is obscure; encouragement and support when morale is low or commitment is
weak; involvement and participation when cohesion is absent; and so forth.
Implications
If our basic notions regarding leadership are correct, Shackleton had an
opportunity to employ two primary strategies to influence his men’s reactions

1/21/2008 4:49:23 PM
CRC_71777_Ch004.indd 60
CRC_71777_Ch004.indd 60 1/21/2008 4:49:23 PM