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Communication in organizations 128

with the interests of the other—the negotiator must continually choose between
cooperation and fighting, and between conformity and avoidance. Negotiators should try
to strengthen their own position, but should be cooperative in seeking solutions. In
addition, they must try to obtain as much information as possible in order to find
alternative solutions, as well as repressing the tendency to keep back too much
information and rigidly retaining their own standpoint. If negotiators cannot represent
themselves flexibly, the possibilities of reaching an agreement are limited.
In order to continue the relationship and simultaneously reach a favourable result, the
game of bargaining—of giving and taking—must be played. This game requires space:
the negotiation space.

Negotiation space

Negotiations are carried on in the existing space between the target points and the points
of resistance of both parties (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992; Whitney, 1990). The target point
is the result that is viewed by one party as ideal. The point of resistance is the minimum
result that one party wants to achieve. Figure 15.1 shows the target points and points of
resistance of Dinner Ltd and Central Heating: It appears that in this situation the
negotiation space is bordered by the amounts of £25,000 and £28,000. Dinner Ltd would
preferably limit the expenditure to £23,000 and will strive for this during the
negotiations. At most they are willing to spend £28,000. Central Heating wants to receive
a minimum of £25,000 for the heating system, but strives for an amount of £30,000. Of
course, neither party lets their points of resistance be known to the other. It is a case of
cautiously putting out feelers to discover where the boundaries of the other party lie and
what kinds of possibilities there are within the remaining space.
If there is no overlap between the negotiation spaces of either party, there is no room
for negotiation. Then both parties will not be able to come to an agreement. In Figure
15.2 we present a situation that leaves no space for negotiation. It appears that Dinner Ltd
is prepared to pay a maximum of £25,000 for the entire installation of the heating system.
Central Heating does not want to install the system for less than £30,000.

Figure 15.1 Target points and points of
resistance: Negotiation space