Page 184 - Contemporary Political Sociology Globalization Politics and Power

170 Citizenship

under threat and has been outlawed in recent well - publicized court cases
involving selection for university places. For African - Americans in US, it
is individual rather than group - differentiated rights that are in the ascen-
dant (Omi and Winant, 1987 ).
“ Special rights ” remain important, however, with regard to rights to
representation in the political process. Multiculturalists, like feminists, are
concerned with the way in which minority groups are under - represented
in the legislatures of Western liberal democracies. Claims for political
representation take different forms according to the group in question.
As Kymlicka notes, claims for political representation are not synonymous
with demands for self - government or for group - differentiated rights on
the grounds of cultural difference. It is rather that they involve giving
minorities a fair hearing in a situation in which their views would other-
wise be systematically ignored. This is consistent with liberal understand-
ings of democratic representation in which, as a bare minimum, it should
provide for the protection of individual interests. In a more elaborated
liberal version of democratic participation, political representation does
more than this, facilitating citizens ’ individual development in accordance
with their recognition of the common good. In either case, it is unfair that
individuals who are members of minority groups are not represented.
Increasingly group - differentiated political rights are an important issue in
multicultural liberal democracies.
In the US, the most prominent attempt to reform systematic imbalances
in representation has been “ redistricting ” – redrawing the boundaries of
electoral districts to create black - majority or Hispanic - majority districts.
Ironically, however, although instituted as part of the campaign against
segregation, it is only effective insofar as residential segregation is the
reality. In response, the Supreme Court has ruled that redistricting involv-
ing “ segregating ” races for the purposes of voting is to be regarded with

suspicion. Like other affirmative action programs designed to redress
systematic disadvantage, it should be seen, Kymlicka (1995) argues, as a
temporary measure. In fact, it is reviewed regularly to assess how well it
is working and whether it is still required.
However, there are cases where societies seem to be divided more per-
manently along religious or cultural lines. In such cases, it may be argued
that requirements for group representation are not temporary. This is
clearly the case where there are claims for a degree of self - government,
as in federal systems, or where groups live on their own land, as Native
Americans do. In other cases, however, group political rights are designed
to accommodate differences within common decision - making procedures.
This is, for example, the case in what is known as “ consociational