Page 34 - Critical and Cultural Theory

THE SIGN
turning it into an autonomous discipline concerned with describing
the state of a linguistic system at any given point in time (synchro-
nic approach) and by drawing a distinction between langue, the
system of language as a whole, and parole, a specific utterance.
Above all, Saussure's theories are centred on the concept of the
sign.
Saussure's sign consists of two elements: the signifier, or sound-
image, and the signified, or the concept referred to. For example,
the sounds I utter when I say 'leopard' and the letters 1-e-o-p-a-r-d
I put down on paper when I write the word 'leopard' constitute
the signifier. The concept of a four-legged, fierce and furry feline
conveyed by those sounds or letters constitutes the signified. It is
the relationship between the signifier and the signified that invests
a sign with meaning: neither signifies anything on its own.
Saussure emphasizes that there is no natural connection between
the signifier and the signified. The link is always arbitrary and
conventional. Language does not reflect a pre-existing reality; nor
does it name universal concepts shared by all cultures. In fact, it
creates reality by chopping up the continuum of space and time
into categories that vary hugely from one culture to another
insofar as they are produced in relation to widely diverse environ-
ments. (It is well known, for instance, that Eskimos have several
words for 'snow' whereas many other cultures deem one word
sufficient to describe this particular entity.) Saussure also stresses
that what makes a sign meaningful is not some intrinsic quality.
Meaning is the product of a sign's difference from and relation to
other signs. Sounds play a crucial part in endowing signs with
meanings on the basis of differences. For example, the difference
between the initial sound of the word 'dog' and the initial sound
of the word 'fog' is what enables us to give each word a different
meaning. These basic differences in sound are known as phonemic
oppositions (phonemes are basic units of sound). Any two words
(like 'dog' and 'fog') differentiated by a single phoneme are
termed minimal pairs. 2
In arguing that we can only grasp signs in the context of other
signs, Saussure compares language to the game of chess: the pieces
on the board do not mean anything outside the rules of the game.

**" The relationship between sound and meaning is discussed in Part I, Chapter
1, 'Meaning'.

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