Page 199 - Discrimination at Work The Psychological and Organizational Bases

CLEVELAND, VESCIO, BARNES-FARRELL
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1997). For example, Cascio's (2003) work on the utility of work and family
benefits on organizational performance reinforces these findings and sug­
gests that organizations benefit substantially from family-friendly policies.
Work by Cascio and others is critical as it includes financial organizational
level criteria and crosses disciplinary boundaries by using utility. Yet these
techniques may not go far enough; factors such as employee divorce rates,
children's school performance, and physical and mental well-being are
often not included in such estimates.
Subtle and Covert Sexism Both subtle and covert sexism refer to "un­
equal and harmful treatment of women that is typically less visible"
(Benokratis, 1997, p. 11). Subtle sexism is less obvious than blatant sexual
discrimination because most individuals have internalized it as "normal"
or "acceptable" behavior, which can be seen as well meaning, uninten­
tional, and nonmalicious. Covert sexism, in contrast, is purposeful and
often maliciously motivated as well as hidden. The presence of either or
both of these forms of sexism in the workplace results in different work­
place experiences for men and women. Also, although Benokratis (1997)
described these forms of discrimination as subtle or covert, they may seem
fairly blatant to individuals (especially women) who experience them at
work on a daily basis.
For example, humor, jokes, and more general work language often rein­
force and perpetuate discrimination in socially acceptable ways. Further­
more, when women do not laugh at "stupid, harmless" jokes, they are
often accused of not having a sense of humor—adding insult to injury
(Benokratis, 1997). Additionally, when humor is of a sexual nature, it often
expresses male dominance over women with the consequence of negating
or silencing women. Sexual humor is therefore experienced as demean­
ing and aggressive, particularly when such jokes are specifically targeted
toward women in powerful positions of authority.
Other forms of subtle or covert sexism include exclusion and "liberated
sexism." Exclusion can be both physical and linguistic, including, for ex­
ample, informal lunches, pickup basketball games, urinal conversations,
or discussion of work issues and strategies using sports, cars, sexual or war
analogies and metaphors. On the other hand, liberated sexism exists when
women are welcomed into the workplace to compete with men (and oth­
ers) for valued rewards, but only so long as they continue to perform their
gender role responsibilities such as childcare, housework, and so forth.

Gender Discrimination Beyond the Boundaries of Professional
and Managerial Work

Much of the research reported here is based on literature on White men
and women in managerial or professional occupations (Powell, 1999). Yet,