Page 242 - Discrimination at Work The Psychological and Organizational Bases

SHORE AND GOLDBERG
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themselves with others). It is also clear that social comparisons are used
to make many personnel decisions (e.g., who is the best candidate in an
applicant pool). In terms of employee age, several comparisons are likely.
First, the immediate work context (department or team) is one source of
comparison. The age of the manager (Liden et al., 1996; Shore et al, 2003;
Tsui, Xin, & Egan, 1995; Tsui et al., 2002), and of coworkers (Cleveland
& Holmann, 1990; Cleveland & Shore, 1992; Cleveland, Shore, & Murphy,
1997; O'Reilly et al., 1989; Riordan, 2000; Tsui et al., 1992; Wagner et al., 1984;
Zenger & Lawrence, 1989) relative to the employee have been shown to
impact many personnel decisions, including supervisor performance eval­
uations, training and development opportunities, and turnover. Although
it has not been researched, we included subordinate age composition in our
model, because this may be a social referent for many managers. Finally,
the age composition of the applicant pool may influence hiring decisions
(Finkelstein, Burke, & Raju, 1995).
Second, career-related age norms have been shown to influence em­
ployee attitudes and performance ratings (Lawrence, 1984,1988), such that
being older ("behind schedule") than others at the same job level in the or­
ganization has negative consequences. Although it is not clear whether
career-related age norms operate outside the organization as well, the
greater difficulty of obtaining employment with increasing age suggests
that they do (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2002). Career-related age norms
may be particularly important in occupations and professions with strong
external labor markets. Older individuals who explore jobs outside of their
current organization may discover that age norms contribute to a lack of
upward mobility.
Third, there is some evidence that job-related age stereotypes operate in
determining recruitment and selection decisions (Perry, 1994, 1997; Perry
& Finkelstein, 1999), such that older workers fare better in old-type jobs,
and younger workers in young-type jobs. A final variable that is included
in our model is the labor market, because a tight labor market may increase
opportunities for older workers by increasing their value both inside and
outside their organizations.
In the following section, we summarize research linking age with entry
into employment, experiences in organizations, and exiting the organiza­
tion. Extensive research exists in all three categories, with several themes
apparent: (a) evidence linking age and decisions by organizational agents
is inconsistent, (b) contextual issues, such as the social and technological
context, appear to be important in determining if and when older workers
are discriminated against, and (c) no single paradigm for explaining links
between age and employment opportunities applies across all situations
or decisions.