Page 75 - Discrimination at Work The Psychological and Organizational Bases

RIORPAN, SCHAFFER, STEWART
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outcomes were related to lower job satisfaction and organizational attach­
ment. However, tokenism can apply to other demographic variables as
well. Jackson, Thoits, and Taylor (1995) found that Black leaders in the
United States, who were in work situations where they were outnumbered
by Whites, exhibited higher levels of depression and anxiety, as compared
to those in more balanced situations. Similarly, Li (1994) found that Asian
minorities (tokens) in Caucasian majority groups displayed lower levels
of performance and self-efficacy, relative to Asian participants in more bal­
anced groups. The tokenism hypothesis is consistent with the basic prin­
ciples of relational demography. An individual who is demographically
dissimilar to the rest of his or her group members will likely experience
unfavorable attitudes and behaviors, relative to individuals who are de­
mographically similar to their respective group members (Riordan, 2000).
The Value-in-Diversity Hypothesis

Whereas each of the aforementioned theoretical perspectives have high­
lighted the negative or unfavorable consequences of demographic dis­
similarity, some researchers have offered reasons why, or conditions un­
der which, dissimilarity might be beneficial. Generally, this perspective,
sometimes referred to as the "value-in-diversity hypothesis" (e.g., Ely &
Thomas, 2001), attempts to explain how information and decision making
can be positively affected by demographic heterogeneity in workgroups
(Williams & O'Reilly, 1998). For example, Ancona and Caldwell (1992)
found that functional background and tenure diversity in new product
teams contributed to more positive managerial ratings of team innovation
and to more positive ratings of overall effectiveness, respectively.
Two factors related to workgroup heterogeneity are suggested to con­
tribute to overall improved group performance. First, employees in a di­
verse workgroup should have better access to informational networks
outside of the group (Williams & O'Reilly, 1998). For example, Zenger
and Lawrence (1989) stated that "If Mary, a new employee, works on a
project with Bob, a 20-year veteran, Mary will probably find it easier to
contact Bob's friends outside the project group as a result of her associa­
tion with Bob" (p. 372). This type of external communication flow can im­
prove group processes and performance (Katz, 1982; Zenger & Lawrence,
1989). Similarly, according to Granovetter's (1973; 1982) "strength in weak
ties" hypothesis, demographically dissimilar group members contribute
to workgroup creativity and performance by providing access to unique,
nonredundant resources (e.g., networks, information) unavailable in ma­
jority group members' overlapping networks.