Page 22 - Educational Technology A Primer for the 21st Century

1.1 Introducing Educational Technology 9
often refers to both hardware and software, both of which can in principle be
perceived one way or another. The AECT definition is not restricted to physical
things or things that are perceivable as it refers to both processes and resources.
Both will be discussed in this volume, consistent with the AECT definition. In
many cases, however, we will use a separate term to refer to a process or collection
of processes, such as instructional design or a pedagogical approach or a learning
strategy all of which can be considered specific kinds of processes, with examples
such as problem-based learning or flipping the classroom or hands-on training
While many will associate learning and instruction with education, some might
wonder why the definition includes performance.Definitions of “learning” and
“instruction” are needed to make the inclusion of performance obvious. Learning is
characterized by stable and persisting changes in what a person or group of people
believe, know, and are able to do (adapted from Spector, 2015). Intentional learning
is purposeful and goal-driven, which is common in formal learning situations.
Instruction is comprised of those things and processes that are intended to support,
facilitate, or enhance learning—intentional learning in this context (Gagné, 1985;
Gagné & Merrill, 1990; Merrill, 2002, 2013; Spector, 2015).
The performance of learners is used to establish that a stable and persisting
change has occurred, which is one reason to include performance within the pur-
view of educational technology. It is an effective use of a technology that matters,
and improving what learners know and can do is an indication of an effective use.
Moreover, because an instruction consists of all those things aimed at improving
learning, including those involved in designing and supporting learning, their
performance is also relevant to the discipline of educational technology (Merrill,
2007, 2013). A well-designed device or artifact used poorly or improperly by a
teacher is not likely to support learning. Teacher performance and, as a conse-
quence, teacher preparation and professional development in technology use are
important. Likewise, a poorly designed learning environment may contain a wealth
of information and resources, but a poor design can easily inhibit an effective use.
As a consequence, the performance of instructional designers is also relevant to
educational technology. Moreover, there is a discipline called “performance tech-
nology” associated with human resource management (see http://www.bptrends.
com/publicationfiles/02-06%20WP%20HPT%20-%20Tosti.pdf).
Associated with the notion of performance in the context of effectiveness is the
notion of efficiency, which can be linked to productivity. Both effectiveness and
efficiency can be applied to learners, teachers, and designers (also to administrators,
support personnel, and policy makers). Later in this volume, a great deal of
emphasis will be placed on effective learning and things that are likely to contribute
to effectiveness, such as learner motivation, engagement, empowerment, and timely
and meaningful formative feedback.
For the learner: Start an educational technology journal or diary (on paper or in
digital format), and entitle a first entry “a memorable learning experience that I
consider effective, efficient, and engaging.” Identify things in or about that expe-
rience that are likely linked to its effectiveness. Can those things be introduced into