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2.2 Learning Theories 35
systems, learning environments and learning activities relevant learning theories
and psychological perspectives include behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism,
connectivism, and humanism.

2.2.1 Behaviorism

Behaviorism was elaborated by Watson, among others. Watson was an American
psychologist whose research was published in the early part of the twentieth cen-
tury. Behaviorism was dominant in American psychology for half a century from
the 1920s to the 1960s and remains one of the most important schools of American
psychology. The main representatives of behaviorism include John B. Watson
(1878–1958), Burrhus F. Skinner (1904–1990), and Edward L. Thorndike (1874–
1949).
Main ideas
Behaviorism is a perspective that focuses almost exclusively on directly observable
things to explain learning (Spector, 2016). That which is directly observed and
believed most relevant to learning are the immediate things in the learner’s envi-
ronment, and most closely contiguous in time and place to the targeted learning—
the so-called stimulus conditions for learning. The response of the learner to the
stimulus is also directly observable and serves as an indicator of learning (Spector,
2016).
The major idea of behaviorism includes the following:

• The learning process is a gradual attempt and error until the consistent success
is attained.
• The key to learning success depends on reinforcement.
• Learning involves a stimulus–response sequence.

Edward L. Thorndike (1905) developed an stimulus–response (S-R) theory of
learning. In stimulus–response theory, knowledge is defined as a learner’s collec-
tion of specific responses to stimuli that are represented in behavioral objectives
(Koehler & colleagues, 2014). Edward L. Thorndike noted that responses (or
behavior) were strengthened or weakened by the consequences of behavior: (1) a
response to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect,
and (2) a response to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition.
Different reinforcement patterns (i.e., continuous or intermittent) have been shown
to have a different impact on learning outcomes (Ferster & Skinner, 1957).
Behaviorism puts emphasis on the importance of the environment during indi-
vidual learning. According to behaviorism theory, teaching is to control the learning