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Minds, Brains, and Programs 111

mal processes and is independent of quite specific material causes in the way
that milk and sugar are not.
In defense of this dualism the hope is often expressed that the brain is a
digital computer (early computers, by the way, were often called ‘‘electronic
brains’’). But that is no help. Of course the brain is a digital computer. Since
everything is a digital computer, brains are too. The point is that the brain’s
causal capacity to produce intentionality cannot consist in its instantiating a
computer program, since for any program you like it is possible for something
to instantiate that program and still not have any mental states. Whatever it is
that the brain does to produce intentionality, it cannot consist in instantiating a
program since no program, by itself, is sufficient for intentionality.

Acknowledgments
I am indebted to a rather large number of people for discussion of these matters and for their pa-
tient attempts to overcome my ignorance of artificial intelligence. I would especially like to thank
Ned Block, Hubert Dreyfus, John Haugeland, Roger Schank, Robert Wilensky, and Terry Winograd.

Notes
1. I am not, of course, saying that Schank himself is committed to these claims.
2. Also, ‘‘understanding’’ implies both the possession of mental (intentional) states and the truth
(validity, success) of these states. For the purposes of this discussion we are concerned only with
the possession of the states.
3. Intentionality is by definition that feature of certain mental states by which they are directed at
or about objects and states of affairs in the world. Thus, beliefs, desires, and intentions are in-
tentional states; undirected forms of anxiety and depression are not. For further discussion see
Searle (1979b).

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