Page 530 - Handbooks of Applied Linguistics Communication Competence Language and Communication Problems Practical Solutions

508 Martina Rost-Roth

4. evaluator observations; and
5. measures of one’s overt behavior.
Assessing training effectiveness often entails using the model developed by
Kirkpatrick. According to Kirkpatrick (1994) evaluation of training should ex-
plore reactions of trainees, learning, transfer/behaviour and results at successive
levels, each level providing information important for the next level:
1. reactions (measures how participants react to the training program),
2. learning (attempts to assess the amount of learning, e.g. skills, knowledge,
attitude),
3. transfer (how the newly acquired skills, knowledge, or attitude are being
used),
4. results (improved quality, decreased costs?).

Brislin et al. (1983) maintain that the possible positive effects of training fall
into three areas:
– Changes in thinking,
– Changes in feelings,
– Changes in behavior. (Brislin et al. 1983: 7–8)
Black and Mendenhall (1992) summarize findings on the effect of intercul-
tural training programs from various studies as follows:

9 out of 10 studies that examined the relationship between training and self-confi-
dence in the ability to behave effectively in intercultural situations, established a
positive connection; 16 out of 16 found positive correlations with more suitable per-
ceptions in intercultural contact; 9 out of 9 found a positive correlation with adjust-
ment processes (for a summary of the findings, see Black and Mendenhall 1992:
179).
Hammer (1999) also provides an overview of the effects of intercultural train-
ing, and lists the following factors as being significant for success:

There are three fundamental outcomes that indicate the success or failure of expatri-
ate adaptation and that guide the development of cross-cultural training efforts: per-
sonal/family adjustment and satisfaction, intercultural interaction, and professional
effectiveness (Hammer 1999: 9).
Drawing on the findings from Black and Mendenhall’s studies, Hammer sum-
marizes them as follows:
In short, cross-cultural training has been shown to develop cross-cultural skills that
affect subsequent success in an overseas assignment, improve expatriates’ psycho-
logical comfort and satisfaction with living and working in a foreign culture, and im-
prove task accomplishment in the cross-cultural environment. (Hammer 1999: 8)

Of course, the effectiveness of training programs is highly dependent on the
trainer’s abilities. 16