Page 82 - Handbooks of Applied Linguistics Communication Competence Language and Communication Problems Practical Solutions

60 Madeleine Brabant, Bernadette Watson and Cindy Gallois

tiveness in an intercultural encounter but have not necessarily followed through
with measurement. This approach focuses on the training of immigrants and so-
journers who are motivated to attain a satisfactory level of communication com-
petence in their host country (cf. Newton in this volume). We discuss three ICC
models here, but there are many others (e.g. Singelis and Brown 1995; Matsu-
moto in this volume).

2.1. Anxiety and uncertainty management
Gudykunst’s (1988, 1995) theory of anxiety and uncertainty management
(AUM) gives priority to cultural traditions, values and norms over socio-politi-
cal factors. He posits that individuals must experience optimal levels of anxiety
and uncertainty to communicate effectively in intercultural encounters. The
extent to which they experience uncomfortable or optimal levels of anxiety
and uncertainty depends on their level of communication skills, motivation, and
knowledge of general and specific cultural factors. The process of anxiety and
uncertainty reduction through acquiring intercultural communication compet-
ence is performed by individuals qua individuals. To adapt to the ambiguity of a
new situation, individuals perform tension-reducing and information seeking
behaviours (Ball-Rokeach 1973). Gudykunst (1988) notes that much behaviour
is habitual, and individuals are often not conscious of their behaviour (see
Triandis 1996). Thus, when interacting with people from a different culture who
do not share the same implicit theory of behaviour, sojourners become more
conscious of their own behaviour.
Gudykunst (1988) posits individualism–collectivism (Hofstede 1983) as
the major dimension of cultural variability influencing intergroup processes.
People in individualistic cultures tend to apply the same value standards to all,
while those in collectivistic cultures tend to apply different value standards to
members of their ingroups and outgroups. Triandis (1996) suggests that collec-
tivistic cultures emphasize the goals, needs and views of the ingroup rather than
individual pleasure, shared ingroup beliefs rather than unique individual beliefs,
and value cooperation with ingroup members rather than individual outcomes.
Gudykunst, thus, suggests that an increase in collectivism results in an increase
in the differences in uncertainty reduction processes (attributional confidence)
between ingroup and outgroup communication. Gudykunst (1995) proposes
that the anxiety and uncertainty management processes underlying both inter-
personal and intergroup communication are the same, highlighting the concep-
tualization of intercultural communication as interpersonal communication
across different social rules and values. Hubbert, Gudykunst and Guerrero’s
(1999) results, in a study of international students in the US, supported AUM
theory.