Page 91 - Handbooks of Applied Linguistics Communication Competence Language and Communication Problems Practical Solutions

Psychological perspectives 69

sometimes contradictory social norms. Effective communication depends cru-
cially on these factors. For this reason, ICC training models are likely to fail in
certain contexts, because interactants are not motivated to communicate well or
because intergroup norms restrict or prohibit the possibility of serious interper-
sonal communication (see Gallois 2003). It is essential for both theory develop-
ment and applications that researchers take full account of the intergroup aspect
of intercultural communication. CAT provides a comprehensive way to do this,
without neglecting the interpersonal and idiosyncratic aspects of conversation.

4. Future directions for the socio-psychological approach to
intercultural communication

As can be seen, these two major traditions in psychology about the study of
intercultural communication have separate and complementary strengths and
areas of application. The first one has fared well in contexts where speakers are
motivated to communicate well and where intergroup history is either not sa-
lient (as in the case of individual travellers without strong views about the new
culture) or not negative. Contrary to earlier predictions from Hall’s (1959)
work, cultural distance has proved less of a factor in communication and mis-
communication than has intergroup history (see Gallois and Pittam 1996). The
second tradition has aimed to explain interactions in settings of social inequality
or intergroup rivalry. In general, researchers in this tradition are pessimistic
about the possibility of effective communication and the potential of intercultu-
ral communication competence training. Instead, they concentrate on the de-
scription and explanation of settings of long-term and problematic intergroup
contact.
Clearly it is important to theorize and address all these contexts, and no one
theory of intercultural communication or training program presently does that
(see Gallois 2003; Hajek and Giles 2003). A first step involves the careful
analysis of a context in terms of intergroup relations, interpersonal relations,
cultural values and norms, and skills and knowledge, in that order. A theory like
CAT is well placed to do this. Gallois (2003) notes that in some situations, in-
tergroup relations are so negative as to undermine any attempt to interact, no
matter how skilled the interactants are. In such situations it may be better to at-
tempt to alter social identity to embrace a larger, shared identity. In other con-
texts, individual orientation, the behaviours that occur in an interaction and the
way they are perceived are the most important determinants of communication
effectiveness. The very concept of effective communication is challenged by
CAT and similar theories, because communication outcomes are posited as
being as much in the eye of the beholder as in the actual behaviour of interac-
tants (see Gallois and Giles 1998; Hajek and Giles 2003).