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230 Chapter 7

meanings of basic assumptions. Therefore, values defi ne a set of organization expecta-
tions from its members. Values are expressed and often imposed by the managerial
elite and become, in some ways, a reference system for activity assessment. They are
included in attitudes and behaviors, in the organizational habitat. The two levels,
assumptions and values, represent the content of what we call an organization expres-
sive area or expressive culture. Its origins can be found both in organization history,
and in the personal history of its members.
Norms form the instrumental and visible area of organizational culture. They rep-
resent the most evident layer for someone who comes in contact with the organization
for the fi rst time. They derive from culture values and basic assumptions. Norms are
expressed in a set of rules and expectations that orient people ’ s behavior within the
organization. This is why, even for the organization personnel, norms constitute their
contact with culture and are the conveyor of values and basic assumptions. There are
two basic categories of norms: formal, institutional norms, produced by managers or
experts, hired for this purpose alone, and made mandatory; and informal norms,
produced by the organization ’ s personnel or by certain groups and disseminated
through legends, stories, or myths, or refl ected in ceremonies or rituals. They are the
expression of informal culture, based on certain values spread in an informal space.
An expressive culture is one that refl ects the emotions, feelings, and aspirations of
the organizations ’ personnel. An illustration of different styles of practice appears in
box 7.1.
Norms are directly involved in the change process, since they allow for interven-
tions in a fi eld that is very accessible to individuals. Those who want to comprehend
organizational culture refer to its philosophical and value layers. Those who want to
change culture and use it as a maintenance or development tool, refer mainly to its
normative layer or as a normative culture. A normative culture is one based on a set
of formal rules, norms, prescriptions, positions, and hierarchies; and it is a culture that
emphasizes compliance with the rules.
On the other hand, norms represent one of the premises for cultural unity, the
reference system for managers in personnel assessment. Such assessments strengthen
norms and are often accompanied by bonuses. Norms are thus a reference system for
personnel as well, whose attitude toward them represents the framework that produces
an organizational ethos.
Schein (1999) argues that the pattern of basic underlying assumptions can function
as a cognitive defense mechanism for individuals and the group; as a result, culture
change is diffi cult, time consuming, and anxiety provoking. Cultures are deep-seated,
pervasive, and complex, and it can be extremely diffi cult to bring the assumptions to