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to wider questions of sustainability remains constrained in many regards. Some such con-
straints are indicated in Chapter 4, and the framing problem – the complexity and variability
of environmental assessment itself – is introduced in Section 12.1.
Perhaps the essential concern with options-based assessment is that it can lead the unwary
to frivolous, ill-advised, or simply unsustainable ends. An LCA comparing three different
routings for a new freeway may direct the debate away from whether a freeway is a good option
at all, or whether it is possible to construct and operate one within carrying capacity limits.
The classic product comparison rarely compares against non-consumption options as,
arguably, this would not be in producers’ interests (or those of a free market economy driven
by inexorable growth in consumer spending). Thus, LCA is generally concerned with the
supply side of environmental impacts rather than the demand side. Can it help us achieve sus-
tainable consumption, rather than simply identifying the ‘less-than-worst’ options?

12.4 LCA and sustainable consumption
Unsustainable consumption dates back to pre-Christian civilisations, and even since the
industrial revolution, consumption concerns date back to the mid-19th century. As Tim
Jackson (2006, p. 2) points out, regarding sustainable consumption: ‘The terminology is recent.
But the concern with resource consumption is scarcely new’.
In the modern and divergent discourse of sustainable consumption between ‘consume effi-
ciently’ at the accommodation end and ‘change lifestyles’ at the paradigm shift end, where
might LCA fit? Lifestyle and behaviour change are now mantras of policy makers in the face of
the realisation that tinkering with technologies (such as has been achieved) is not enough to
prevent dangerous climate change. Everything from food choices to energy saving behaviours
to transport modes and leisure pursuits are candidates for a new phase of social engineering in
the face of environmental necessity. Can LCA play a role here?
Presently, LCA is often associated with efficiency. However, there are many levels and uses of
the term. An early problem arises when efficient choices or rational actions are assumed. Appli-
cation of LCA can lead to cleaner production where greater efficiency is indicated, and where
this is related to costs in a competitive marketplace, and where actors are empowered, resourced
and willing to follow greater efficiency goals. However, we are not always rational – and we
exhibit different rationalities at different times. Moreover, as consumers, we often do not ration-
alise between products or services, we just ‘do’ – Shove’s work illustrates that consumption
practices are likely to be more dominated by a series of social practice determinants which sit
‘below the radar’ rather than by conscious rational decision-making (Shove 2003a, b; 2006).
As indicated in the literature (e.g. OECD 2005) (see Chapter 11), many people view them-
selves as green consumers, but relatively few act consistently green. Clear labelling backed by
independence of claims and public information campaigns help, but it remains that consump-
tion and purchasing are complex - and green purchasing is no less so. Many consumers do not
trust the information they do get and, while people often state a preference to consume more
sustainably, convenience, comfort, cost and a vast range of cultural and social norms and prac-
tices often appear to conspire against us when it comes to following through. Moreover, when
consumers do take the ‘green’ option, they often appear to compensate for this by then con-
suming elsewhere – either consciously, rather like a chocolate reward for careful dieting that
backfires, or simply out of convenience, ignorance or other reason. Also, where the choice is to
buy green or non-green, as indicated in Section 12.2, consumers are less likely to ‘pay for green’
if others are free-riding in an imperfect marketplace.
So, among consumers, key issues in the uptake of green goods include price, awareness,
trust, the complexity and availability of information, and the interplay of this with other

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