Page 116 - Materials Chemistry, Second Edition

98 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT HANDBOOK

consensus within WULCA (the UNEP/SETAC life cycle initiative working
group focusing on water use impacts (Bayart, Bulle et ah 2010). In this frame-
work water consumption leads to a modification of resource availability. The
subsequent increased competition is captured by a competition index corre-
lated with water scarcity (withdrawal or consumption to availability ratio).
The first set of impact pathways addresses competition over freshwater
resources between different human activities due to an insufficient supply of
the resource. A reduction in water availability to humans can potentially affect
human health if water were fulfilling human essential needs (domestic use,
agriculture or aquaculture). If financial resources are available, there can be
adaptations by using a functionally-equivalent alternative that may, in turn,
shift the environmental burdens to other life cycle stages and impact catego-
ries. Direct impacts on human health related to water deprivation have been
addressed by (Pfister, Koehler et ah 2009; Motoshita, Itsubo et ah 2010; Boulay,
Bulle et ah 2011a). The indirect impact pathways consider that nobody suffers
from water deprivation in world wealth regions as competing users have the
capacity to adapt to a reduced water availability (for example, by desalinating
water or by importing food). Indirect impacts generated by such compensation
scenarios are under development (Boulay, Bulle et ah 2011b).
The second set of impact pathways relates to insufficient freshwater for
existing ecosystems due to increased withdrawal by humans. Several method-
ologies have been published recently to address different impact pathways by
linking water use with impacts on ecosystem quality: decreased terrestrial bio-
diversity due to water consumption (Pfister, Koehler et ah 2009); disappearance
of terrestrial plant species due to shallow ground water withdrawal and related
lowering of the water table (Zelm, Schipper et ah 2010); and the effects of water
consumption on freshwater fish species (Hanafiah, Xenopoulos et ah 2011).
The third pathway has, so far, received less attention. This pathway origi-
nally addressed the reduced availability of freshwater for future generations
and outlines long-term depletion. Only Pfister, Koehler et ah (2009) have
attempted to quantify the impact on future freshwater availability through
a backup-technology approach to evaluate the impact of water consump-
tion above their renewability rate. However, it is expected that this area of
protection will be addressed in the near future in the interest of ecosystem
services (i.e. addressing the functional value as mentioned above), where
reduced ecosystems services will have a direct impact on human society which
is measurable through economic consequences.

4.7.5 Resources and Ecosystem Services Areas of Protection
People everywhere rely on ecosystems and the services they provide. The
loss or degradation of ecosystem services will have severe impacts on human
well-being and have a profound effect on businesses. Higher operating costs
or reduced operating flexibility should be expected due to diminished or
degraded resources (such as freshwater) or increased regulation (MA 2005).
Moving towards the definition of an Area of Protection that evaluates the