Page 44 - Materials Chemistry, Second Edition

30 E. I. Wiloso and R. Heijungs

Research and Demonstration Early commercial Commercial
Development
Small-scale Combustion in
Biomass to heat
gasification boilers and stoves
Combustion in ORC 1 Combustion +
Combustion
or Stirling engine steam cycle
2 3 4 Gasification +
Gasification IGFC IGCC IGGT
steam cycle
Co-firing/combustion Indirect co-firing Parallel co-firing Direct co-firing
Microbial Biogas 2-stage Anaerobic 1-stage Anaerobic
Anaerobic digestion
fuel cells upgrading digestion digestion, Landfill gas
Lignocellulosic Ethanol from starch
Bioethanol (liquid)
ethanol and sugar
Biodiesel from Syndiesel Renewable diesel Biodiesel by
Biodiesel (liquid) 5
microalgae (gasification + FT ) by hydrogenation trans-esterification
All other novel Gasification Biogas
Hydrogen (gaseous)
routes with reforming reforming
Gasification + Biogas
Biomethane (gaseous)
methanation reforming
1 2 3 4
Organic Rankine Cycle; Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell; Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle; Integrated Gasification Gas
5
Turbine; Fischer Tropsch
Heat Power / Combined heat and power Biofuels
Fig. 5 State of the art of the conversion technologies for bioenergy (modified from IEA-
Bioenergy 2009)
on land use and improve GHG emission reductions when compared to some first-
generation biofuels, leading to lower environmental risk. These second-generation
technologies mainly use lignocellulosic feedstocks for the production of ethanol,
synthetic diesel, or aviation fuels. In this regard, they are still immature and require
further development to demonstrate reliable operation on a commercial scale
(IEA-Bioenergy 2009).
3.5.3 Regional Variability

Data gaps in bioenergy LCA are also present with respect to coverage of feedstock
types and of geographical areas with an over-representation of Europe and North
America (Cherubini and Strømman 2011). Economic and political interactions that
influence land use can cause more variation as the system boundary expands across
ecosystems and political borders (Singh et al. 2010). Many studies also show that
water consumption varies significantly, depending on regional irrigation require-
ment and practices (Borrion et al. 2012).

4 Impact Assessment

In general, environmental impact assessment can be regarded as either potential
impact or real impact. But in LCA, only potential impact or maximum possible
impact is considered (Baumann and Tillman 2004). In addition, impact category