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PROJECT-BASED ORGANIZATIONS AND KNOWLEDGE WORK 115

Multiple dispersed Multiple dispersed projects
projects involved but working together reciprocally
each operating on tasks in order to integrate
independently on tasks knowledge (e.g.. multiple
Complex with output pooled or projects, located in different
sequentially added (e.g.. IT
organizations, involved in
large aerospace program
projects part of a larger
Project ecology (time, space, number of organizations involved) between projects can be projects crucial)
program where interfaces
where coordination across
specified in advance)
Small number of co-located
Small number of co-located
projects each operating
reciprocally on tasks in
independently on tasks with projects working together
Simple output pooled or sequentially order to integrate knowledge
(e.g.. projects within a single
added (e.g.. projects within
a publishing company each
working on different type of pharmaceutical company
working on different phases
publication) of innovation process)
Low High
Project interactivity (way task interdependencies are managed
across projects)
Figure 5.2 Complex project contexts

Thus, the complexity of the project context can vary from low to high. We refer
to this dimension as the project ecology as it represents the ecosystem of the dif-
ferent projects that are linked in some way.
The second dimension of the figure, along the horizontal axis, repre-
sents the degree of interdependence between projects, which can also vary
from high to low. Thus, in some complex project contexts there may be few
interdependencies – for example, where projects are merely encouraged to share
‘lessons learned’ in order to reduce ‘reinvention’ and encourage exploitation of
knowledge (Prusak, 1997). However, in projects involved in an ongoing inno-
vation process, interdependencies are likely to be significant. In such situations,
interdependence between projects is the result of the dual requirements to divide
knowledge (and labour) in order to complete specialist work and to integrate
different knowledge domains (e.g. scientific, technological, commercial) in the
innovation process. It is these differences in the respective knowledge resources
of each project that create interdependencies, with each project often conduct-
ing a particular type of specialist work that produces knowledge that must be
integrated with the knowledge produced by specialists in another project. How
these interdependencies are handled is crucial to the ongoing sustainability of
the innovation process in a complex project context.
Thompson (1967) identified three different types of interdependency –
pooled, sequential and reciprocal. Whilst Thompson (1967) viewed task
interdependence as deriving from the technologies deployed, others argue that

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