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Section 1.4  Technological Challenge                                         35

            Table 1.1 Some Major Technological Advances from 1500 A.D., the Parallel Developments in
            Materials and Materials Testing, and Failures Related to Behavior of Materials
                     Technological     New Materials     Materials Testing
            Years    Advance           Introduced        Advances           Failures
            1500’s   Dikes             (Stone, brick,    Tension (L. da Vinci)
            1600’s   Canals              wood, copper,   Tension, bending
                     Pumps               bronze, and cast  (Galileo)
                     Telescope           and wrought iron  Pressure burst
                                         in use)           (Mariotte)
                                                         Elasticity (Hooke)
            1700’s   Steam engine      Malleable cast    Shear, torsion
                     Cast iron bridge    iron              (Coulomb)
            1800’s   Railroad industry  Portland cement  Fatigue (W¨ ohler)  Steam boilers
                     Suspension bridge  Vulcanized rubber  Plasticity (Tresca)  Railroad axles
                     Internal combustion  Bessemer steel  Universal testing  Iron bridges
                      engine                               machines
            1900’s   Electric power    Alloy steels      Hardness (Brinell)  Quebec bridge
            1910’s   Powered flight     Aluminum alloys   Impact (Izod,      Boston molasses
                     Vacuum tube       Synthetic plastics  Charpy)            tank
                                                         Creep (Andrade)
            1920’s   Gas-turbine       Stainless steel   Fracture (Griffith)  Railroad wheels,
            1930’s    engine           Tungsten carbide                       rails
                     Strain gage                                            Automotive parts
            1940’s   Controlled fission  Ni-base alloys   Electronic testing  Liberty ships
            1950’s   Jet aircraft      Ti-base alloys      machine          Comet airliner
                     Transistor; computer  Fiberglass    Low-cycle fatigue  Turbine generators
                     Sputnik                               (Coffin, Manson)
                                                         Fracture mechanics
                                                           (Irwin)
            1960’s   Laser             HSLA steels       Closed-loop        F-111 aircraft
            1970’s   Microprocessor    High-performance    testing machine  DC-10 aircraft
                     Moon landing        composites      Fatigue crack      Highway bridges
                                                           growth (Paris)
                                                         Computer control
            1980’s   Space station     Tough ceramics    Multiaxial testing  Alex. Kielland rig
            1990’s   Magnetic levitation  Al-Li alloys   Direct digital control  Surgical implants
            2000’s   Sustainable energy  Nanomaterials   User-friendly      Space Shuttle tiles
            2010’s   Extreme fossil fuel  Bio-inspired     test software    Deepwater Horizon
                      extraction         materials                            offshore oil rig

            Source: [Herring 89], [Landgraf 80], [Timoshenko 83], [Whyte 75], Encyclopedia Britannica, news reports.
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