Page 137 - Introduction to Electronic Commerce and Social Commerce

126 • Sport, Media and Society

active involvement with deciphering the oblique reference or absent meaning dis-
tracts us from the realisation that we already engaged in constructing the meaning
of the advertisement. Advertising presents itself as if it is a refl ection of reality (we
already know the meanings it draws on and connects to its products). By supplying
the meanings of the advertisement, the consumer is tied into the assumption that the
advertisement simply represents the world as it is. Yet advertisements are creative
constructions: interpretations of the world, not refl ections.
Advertisers may also play on their perceptions of consumer self-awareness and
ability to get the joke to create a sense of shared perspectives on the world. Gold-
man (1992: 181) discussed the ‘knowing wink’ approach used in a series of Levi’s
advertisements which drew on popular critiques of ‘consumer conformism’. Viewers

were encouraged to adopt a self-reflexive subject position that connected them to
the advertisements’ message that Levi’s unshrunk jeans are designed to accentuate
individuality as they shape themselves to the body of the wearer. The message was
reinforced by the characters, who were portrayed as real-life individuals, rather than
slick-looking models. Viewers were encouraged to connect with the characters and
the product through a shared world perspective constituted by an ironic stance about
mass consumer culture and a valuing of nonconformity.
McKay (2005) argued that Nike advertising should be understood in terms of its
articulation of myths. Myths are ‘partial truths that accentuate particular versions of
reality and marginalize or omit others’ (McKay 2005: 83). Nevertheless, myths are
presented to us in advertising as obvious and enduring. Drawing on the work of Bar-
thes (1973), McKay suggested that Nike advertisements present a mythic universe
in which the ‘naturally’ strong compete against the weak, minimising structural
inequalities which might privilege some over others. McKay considered advertise-
ments which extend the famous ‘Just Do It’ slogan into all areas of social life, im-
plying social advancement is a matter of individual free will. Nike advertisements
consistently leave out references to social realities which mitigate against success.
For example, they feature athletes from marginalised ethnic groups and present a
rags-to-riches narrative apparently achieved through strength of character. McKay
(2005: 87) pointed to the overwhelming evidence that success in sport is an unob-
tainable dream for the majority, not mentioning the ‘social inequalities of class, race,
age, and gender that pervade sport itself and the global exploitation of labor under-
girding the production and consumption of these companies’ advertising slogans’.
These constitute the absences of the advertisement.

Case Study: Meaning between the Gaps—Humour
and Identity in Rugby Advertisements

Advertisements are often created specifically to tie into major televised sport spec-
tacles. The car manufacturer Peugeot sponsored the 2007 Rugby World Cup as