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16 Participation: Empowerment for Sustainable Development 195

the feasibility of the courses of action generated in the first two phases is critically
evaluated. The future workshop is especially suited to developing creative and
innovative solutions to problems accompanying new projects.

Scenario Workshop

The scenario method was originally developed for strategic planning in military and
economic contexts as a supplement to forecasting instruments such as trend extrap-
olation or simulation (Reibnitz 1987). Starting with the insight that the future is in
principle undetermined and that knowledge about future developments is always
incomplete and uncertain, the scenario method aims at creating a space for possi-
bilities about imaginable futures. Strategic courses of action are then developed to
optimise the chances and risks for each scenario (Reibnitz 1987: 15–26). This
method develops anticipatory knowledge and preventive options of action. While in
the majority of cases this method has been used with non-lay professionals and
experts, recently there have been successful examples of scenario workshops using
citizens as a method of participative forecasting (Niewöhner et al. 2004). Experts
are given an opportunity to contribute their knowledge in these processes. In con-
trast to future workshops, scenario workshops are more analytic and are not norma-
tively oriented. In the first place this participation process is not about desirable
futures, but about identifying imaginable futures. This involves integrating various
sets of knowledge and experience, reflecting critically on values and preferences in
discussion and then developing together with other participants in a workshop
potential courses of action. An important side effect in scenario workshops is social
learning, which is stimulated through the structured discussions about possible
future developments.

eParticipation

eParticipation is not an independent method but rather a new information and
communication technology that creates greater access to citizen participation (Fuchs
and Kastenholz 2002). Complex information, such as blueprints, maps or any type
of graphical representations, can be easily communicated. And moderated discus-
sion forums offer virtual communication rooms that facilitate discussion with
experts and the exchange of opinions. eParticipation is primarily suitable as a sup-
plement to other methods of public participation, which for organizational reasons
only permit a restricted number of individuals to enter into face-to-face communica-
tion. A limiting factor of this method is the socially unequal access to the internet.
The participatory methods outlined above and comparable approaches have been
used over the past years in many Western democracies as well as in emerging and
developing countries, especially in procedures assessing the consequences of