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8 Part 1 • SyStemS analySiS FundamentalS

Part of the logical design of the information system is devising the HCI. The interface con-
nects the user with the system and is thus extremely important. The user interface is designed with
the help of users to make sure that the system is audible, legible, and safe, as well as attractive and
enjoyable to use. Examples of physical user interfaces include a keyboard (to type in questions
and answers), onscreen menus (to elicit user commands), and a variety of graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) that use a mouse or touch screen.
The design phase also includes designing databases that will store much of the data needed
by decision makers in the organization. Users benefit from a well-organized database that is logi-
cal to them and corresponds to the way they view their work. In this phase the analyst also works
with users to design output (either onscreen or printed) that meets their information needs.
Finally, the analyst must design controls and backup procedures to protect the system and
the data, and to produce program specification packets for programmers. Each packet should
contain input and output layouts, file specifications, and processing details; it may also include
decision trees or tables, Unified Modeling Language (UML) or data flow diagrams, and the
names and functions of any prewritten code that is either written in-house or using code or other
class libraries.

Developing and Documenting Software
In the fifth phase of the SDLC, the analyst works with programmers to develop any original
software that is needed. During this phase the analyst works with users to develop effective
documentation for software, including procedure manuals, online help, and websites featuring
frequently asked questions (FAQs) or Read Me files shipped with new software. Because users
are involved from the beginning, phase documentation should address the questions they have
raised and solved jointly with the analyst. Documentation tells users how to use software and
what to do if software problems occur.
Programmers have a key role in this phase because they design, code, and remove syntac-
tical errors from computer programs. To ensure quality, a programmer may conduct either a
design or a code walkthrough, explaining complex portions of the program to a team of other
programmers.

Testing and Maintaining the System
Before an information system can be used, it must be tested. It is much less costly to catch prob-
lems before the system is signed over to users than after. Some of the testing is completed by
programmers alone, some of it by systems analysts in conjunction with programmers. A series
of tests to pinpoint problems is run first with sample data and eventually with actual data from
the current system. Often test plans are created early in the SDLC and are refined as the project
progresses.
Maintenance of the system and its documentation begins in this phase and is carried out
routinely throughout the life of the information system. Much of the programmer’s routine work
consists of maintenance, and businesses spend a great deal of money on maintenance. Some
maintenance, such as program updates, can be done automatically via a vendor site on the Web.
Many of the systematic procedures the analyst employs throughout the SDLC can help ensure
that maintenance is kept to a minimum.

Implementing and Evaluating the System
In this last phase of systems development, the analyst helps implement the information system.
This phase involves training users to handle the system. Vendors do some training, but oversight
of training is the responsibility of the systems analyst. In addition, the analyst needs to plan for
a smooth conversion from the old system to the new one. This process includes converting files
from old formats to new ones or building a database, installing equipment, and bringing the new
system into production.
Evaluation is included as part of this final phase of the SDLC mostly for the sake of discus-
sion. Actually, evaluation takes place during every phase. A key criterion that must be satisfied
is whether the intended users are indeed using the system.
It should be noted that systems work is often cyclical. When an analyst finishes one phase of
systems development and proceeds to the next, the discovery of a problem may force the analyst
to return to the previous phase and modify the work done there.