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relation to focus group research. It creates a means of direct communication between
‘ordinary citizens’and politicians (Scammell,1995).At other times,the use of experts has
been criticised for distancing the citizen from the political process and for simply
creating a better system for propaganda and manipulation.

The real point is that one can never stop political parties, or governments, or
universities or corporations from using the best means available to communicate with
the public at large. That they will turn to those who are professional at those things is
not surprising. They would in fact be failing in their duties if they did not. Does this
lead to a process of professionalisation or something different, a gradual long-term
leads to a process of professionalisation or something different, a gradual long-term
adaptation to change and the use of the most modern and best techniques to
communicate with a media-saturated and media-savvy public?

NOTES
1. Discussions around this topic in the early part of the twentieth century would use such
phrases as ‘manipulating public opinion’, ‘engineering consent’, and ‘experts in propaganda’.
See Kelley (1956) in particular.
2. Kelley also acknowledges that changes in news values force politicians to turn to those who
know how to use the media to obtain coverage.(1956,p.103)
3. H. H. Wilson credits Lord Woolton with the introduction of advertising and public relations.
See quote above,p.3.
4. Drawing on American experience, Stan Kelley quotes an extract from a Californian Senator
written in 1910: ‘Three things … imperatively and immediately necessary with us’ money,
organization, and a ‘publicity bureau in charge of a skilled and competent newspaper man.’
(1956,p.28)
5. It is not surprising to note that title of the chapter on the Labour party in the study of the
1964 election is ‘The modernization of Labour’.
6. After the 1959 defeat,a number of senior Labour politicians had arrived at similar conclusions.
They noted that ‘the Labour Party had failed to adapt its traditional doctrines to the needs
and aspirations of an increasingly prosperous group of would-be middle-class voters who had
decided the result of the election.’(Windlesham,1966,p.85)
7. He is reported as expressing a desire to continue to work for the party on a consultancy basis.

REFERENCES Professionalisation in the British Electoral and Political Context
Abrams,M.(1962) ‘Professionalism in Politics’,Socialist Commentary,April 1962,pp.3–5.
Abrams,M.(1963) ‘Public Opinion Polls and Political Parties’,Public Opinion Quarterly XXVII,Spring,
Princeton University Press,pp.9–18.
Bell,T.(1982) ‘The Conservatives’Advertising Campaign’,in R.Worcester & M.Harrop (eds.) Political
Communications The General Election of 1979. London:George Allen & Unwin
Butler, D. & D. Kavanagh (1992) ‘Labour: Seeking Electability’, pp. 43–66 in D. Butler & D. Kavanagh
The British General Election of 1992.Basingstoke:Macmillan,
Butler,D.& A.King (1965) The British General Election of 1964.London:Macmillan.
Butler,D.& R.Rose (1960) The British General Election of 1959.London:Macmillan.
Cockett, R. (1992) ‘The Party, Publicity, and the Media’, in A. Seldon & S. Ball (eds) Conservative
Century. Oxford:Oxford University Press. 61