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44 Waste Management Practices: Municipal, Hazardous, and Industrial
flood areas, that occurred where soil water moved only very slowly, and that had natural imperme-
able clay formations to prevent contaminant migration. Over the past two decades, landfill siting
has become a sophisticated process that incorporates technical as well as political and social con-
cerns. Continuing improvement in the siting process has significantly restricted locations where
landfills can be placed (Tammemagi, 1999).
The number of MSW landfills has dropped substantially from about 20,000 in 1979 to 2216 in
1999 (U.S. EPA, 2001a) (see Chapter 1). One of the major causes for the decline is the NIMBY
(not-in-my-backyard) syndrome, a result of the “dump” stigma that persists in the minds of many
Americans. The NIMBY phenomenon evolved as a result of increased awareness and the affluence
of citizens combined with increased public education and attention by the media. There have also
been tremendous improvements in the ability to detect contaminants with improved technology and
instrumentation. Another cause for the decline of landfills was the enactment of stringent new
guidelines, both at the federal and state levels, for landfill construction, operation, and closure. Such
guidelines have essentially put many older landfills out of business.

2.10 RECYCLING/REUSE
Recycling in the late 1800s was by individuals who scoured the streets and trash piles looking for
material of value. The first organized municipal recycling program was attempted in 1874 in
Baltimore, but did not succeed (Gerlat, 1999; Vesilind et al., 2002).
From the late 1800s through World War I, raw garbage was fed to pigs on farms as a means of
increasing food production. By 1917, 35% of all cities monitored in one survey utilized this method.
The figure increased to 44% in 1925, and then leveled off at 39% by 1930 (Hering and Greeley,
1921; Blumberg and Gottlieb, 1989). Scientists discovered that this practice contributed to the
infection of animals by Trichinella spiralis and Vesicular exanthema, which could be passed on to
humans who ate undercooked pork. When a series of swine epidemics occurred in the 1950s and
several operations were shut down, public health regulations were issued to prevent the feeding of
raw garbage to pigs. The cost of cooking the garbage prior to feeding to pigs was expensive and so
the practice gradually disappeared (Alexander, 1993).
In 1898 the first materials recovery facility (MRF)(see Chapter 7) was built in New York City.
The facility processed the waste of over 116,000 residents, and recovered up to 37% (by wt) of the
wastes. Soon MRFs were constructed in Berlin, Hamburg, and Munich. Assisted by trommel
screens and conveyor belts, the Munich MRF processed over 275 metric tons (300 tons) of waste
per day (Bilitewski et al., 1997).
Europe led the United States in recycling. By 1939, as war approached, German householders
were expected to separate rags, paper, bottles, bones, rabbit skins, iron, and other metals from their
discards (APWA, 1941; Alexander, 1993). Prewar Japan’s needs for imported scrap iron is well
documented.
Regardless of advances in sanitation technology, waste composition and volumes will change,
public and governmental attitudes will vary, and there will always be new challenges in the field of
waste management. A health official noted the sense of frustration experienced by sanitation offi-
cials when he wrote (Alexander 1993):
Appropriate places for [refuse] are becoming scarcer year by year, and the question as to some method
of disposal... must soon confront us. Already the inhabitants in proximity to the public dumps are begin-
ning to complain. . . . I can not urge too strongly upon the Commissioners the necessity for action in
this direction. The waste that is taken from yards and dwelling places must be provided for, and that
provision should not longer be delayed.

This warning was ignored. The letter was sent to the attention of the Commissioners of Washington,
DC, in 1889.