Page 14 - Wind Energy Handbook

xiv CONTENTS

9.2.2 Design and mitigation 523
9.2.3 Assessment of impact 524
9.2.4 Shadow flicker 527
9.2.5 Sociological aspects 527
9.3 Noise 528
9.3.1 Terminology and basic concepts 528
9.3.2 Wind-turbine noise 531
9.3.3 Measurement, prediction and assessment of wind-farm noise 534
9.4 Electromagnetic Interference 538
9.4.1 Modelling and prediction of EMI from wind turbines 541
9.5 Ecological Assessment 545
9.5.1 Impact on birds 546
9.6 Finance 549
9.6.1 Project appraisal 549
9.6.2 Project finance 553
9.6.3 Support mechanisms for wind energy 555
References 557
10 Electrical Systems 559
10.1 Power-collection Systems 559
10.2 Earthing (Grounding) of Wind Farms 562
10.3 Lightning Protection 565
10.4 Embedded (Dispersed) Wind Generation 568
10.4.1 The electric power system 568
10.4.2 Embedded generation 569
10.4.3 Electrical distribution networks 570
10.4.4 The per-unit system 573
10.4.5 Power flows, slow-voltage variations and network losses 573
10.4.6 Connection of embedded wind generation 577
10.4.7 Power system studies 579
10.5 Power Quality 580
10.5.1 Voltage flicker 586
10.5.2 Harmonics 588
10.5.3 Measurement and assessment of power quality characteristics of
grid-connected wind turbines 589
10.6 Electrical Protection 590
10.6.1 Wind-farm and generator protection 592
10.6.2 Islanding and self-excitation of induction generators 594
10.6.3 Interface protection 596
10.7 Economic Aspects of Embedded Wind Generation 598
10.7.1 Losses in distribution networks with embedded wind generation 599
10.7.2 Reactive power charges and voltage control 600
10.7.3 Connection charges ‘deep’ and ‘shallow’ 601
10.7.4 Use-of-system charges 602
10.7.5 Impact on the generation system 604
References 607
Index 609