Page 379 - Materials Chemistry, Second Edition

6.3 State of the Art of Methods 363

D: Impacts of biological emissions
D1: Impacts on ecosystems; modification of species and biodiversity
D2: Impacts on humans (e.g. by pathogen organisms).

These ‘new’ impact categories, where indicator models are partly under research
and not yet satisfactory for practical application in standard LCAs, were initially
introduced because of their widespread neglect in LCIA (Renner and Kl¨ opffer,
2005, loc. cit.). Undoubtedly ecosystems worldwide are threatened by invasive
species (mostly neozoa and neophytes, though native species can also evolve into
33)
invasive species ) at least just as much as by the destruction of habitats and chem-
ical and physical exposures. 34) Potential ecological impacts of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) are likewise part of this group c. 35) Regions that in the course
of geologic history have been separated from the rest of the world, for example,
Australia and New Zealand, are mostly threatened by these ‘stressors’. Interest-
ingly, neophytes and neozoa are spread predominantly via the technosphere, for
example, ballast water of tankers, incrustation of hulls (ships), ‘blind passengers’ in
the case of food transportation, tourists, and so on. The propagation of pathogenic
germs can also take place via the ecosphere by wild animals, for example, migra-
tory birds. A consideration of all these damaging impacts would even worsen the
perception of worldwide trade completely neglecting the sphere ‘environment’, in
addition to the already widespread bad perception for social reasons.

E: Further categories
E1: Casualties;
E2: Impacts on health at the working place (technosphere; exposition via the
environment see B6);
E3: Drainage, erosion and salting of soils (see also A3);
E4: Destruction of landscapes (see also A3);
E5: Disturbance of ecological systems and variety of species (biodiversity)
(see also A3, B7 and D1);
E6: (Solid) waste.
For reasons of completeness, further impact categories suggested in the scientific
literature are listed in group E. 36) Some are more important for countries of the
south (E3) and therefore of particular importance for the UNEP/SETAC life
cycle initiative. Others represent serious problems for system boundaries: for
instance, are parts of the technosphere (E1, E2, E6) to be included? E5 is in
fact of central importance but overlaps with some other categories and is very
difficult to quantify. 37) E6 is a relic of the time of the proto LCAs and surely
not an impact category, at least not collected waste. Litter, however, should be

33) If for instance a predator is extinguished or hunting restrictions are enacted, climate changes
favour a species, and so on.
34) Around the world, invasive species are the second ranking cause of extinction of native species, after the
destruction of habitats by human activity Wilson (2006).
35) Kl¨ opffer et al. (1999, 2001).
36) Renner and Kl¨ opffer (2005).
37) Koellner and Geyer (2013).