Page 265 - Materials Chemistry, Second Edition

246 Life Cycle Assessment of Wastewater Treatment

investment in professional qualification and training, are key points to improve sani-
tation conditions in such countries.
Lohri et al. (2014) indicate the following aspects as the main reasons for prob-
lems when wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are implemented in developing
countries: unsuitable technologies, lack of ownership and responsibility of opera-
tors, absence of professional and academic networks, obstructive legislation, lack of
institutional support, design and scale that do not match the availability of feedstock,
lack of local skills for operation, and absence of maintenance and service support.
Furthermore, the scarcity of studies dedicated to developing countries leads to
the selection of inappropriate treatment technologies in terms of climatic condi-
tions, financial and human resource capabilities, and social or cultural acceptability
(Massoud et al., 2009).
These findings reveal the urgent need to develop less expensive, more efficient,
and easier-to-maintain technologies for wastewater management, which could con-
tribute to the sustainability of the systems (Lutterbeck et al., 2017).
Developing countries from tropical and subtropical regions, for example, present
a climate that makes the use of anaerobic technology applicable and less expensive
(Foresti et al., 2001).
According to Mara (2003), upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors (UASBs)
are high-rate anaerobic wastewater treatment units and have been extensively used
in developing countries such as Brazil, Colombia, and India. However, for Torres et
al. (2012), further research is needed to improve and upgrade the existing anaerobic
treatment methods, adapting them to each particular context.
Constructed wetlands also meet the main characteristics required for an adequate
treatment process for developing countries. Zhang et al. (2014) provided a detailed
review of previous research involving constructed wetlands in developing countries.
Lutterbeck et al. (2017), in turn, presented results related to the evaluation of a wet-
land in the context of rural areas.
Hawkins et al. (2013) analyzed the pros and cons of traditional centralized sys-
tems and decentralized solutions for wastewater management in developing countries
and concluded that the former are normally preferred for political reasons, despite
the latter often being the most suitable option. Simplified and decentralized systems,
such as individual septic tanks, for example, are promising solutions for developing
countries and have been widely used in Brazil.

12.4 WASTEWATER LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
STUDIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool already widely used around the world in the
analysis of wastewater management systems, because it allows the negative and posi-
tive impacts of a project to be quantified by a scientific methodology. Indeed, LCA
has been proved to be a suitable instrument to assess the environmental effects of
WWTPs in both design and operation phases (Zang et al., 2015). Providing a better
understanding of the environmental impacts generated by wastewater management,
LCA enables the minimization of negative effects contributing to environmental
protection (Limphitakphong et al., 2016).