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NEW COLLABORATIVE FORMS OF DOING RESEARCH 93

to the extent that these areas of knowledge ● Mode 2 becomes more flexible and deeply affects
approach the modes of operation of the what counts as ‘good science’ (Gibbons et al.,
‘hard’ sciences. It affects: 1994: 3–8).

● what knowledge is produced, In contrast, the term ‘Mode 1’ refers to a
● how it is produced, form of production of knowledge – a com-
● the context in which it is pursued,
● the way in which production is organized, plex of ideas, methods, values, and norms –
● the systems of reward it activates, and that has been developed to disseminate
● the mechanisms that control the quality of what the Newtonian model to more and more
is produced (Gibbons et al., 1994: 7). fields of inquiry and ensure that what is
considered ‘established scientific (formal)
These characteristics are firmly articulated in practice’ is observed. Table 7.1 compares the
the case of the ‘hard’ sciences: physics, main characteristics of the two modes of
chemistry, and biology. Inasmuch as the producing knowledge, as set out by the
social sciences and humanities have tried to authors.
follow the ‘hard’ sciences in rigor, similar Mode 2 research includes a larger group of
social systems have been implemented to ‘practitioners,’ who are temporary and het-
govern production of knowledge in these erogeneous, collaborating on a problem
areas (Gibbons et al., 1994: 7). To distinguish defined in a specific, localized context.
them from the traditional form, these authors According to this orientation, there is a
call the new mode of knowledge production potential imbalance between the volatility
‘Mode 2,’ and name the classical way, ‘Mode and the permanence of institutions that culti-
1.’ vate Mode 2 knowledge production. This is a
What follows are some characteristics of new situation that appears to be intermediate
Mode 2 in the context of application: between stable and flexible organizational
forms. The production of knowledge is less
● Problems are not restricted to a discipline or a and less a self-contained activity. It is neither
group of disciplines (multi-disciplinary); they are the ‘science’ of the universities nor the ‘tech-
trans-disciplinary. nology’ of industry (Gibbons et al., 1994:
● The work is carried out in non-hierarchical, het- 156). The authors assert that a fundamental
erogeneous, and transitory organizational forms. change that is effected by Mode 2 research is
● No preference is allocated to university that the production of knowledge is a more
institutionalization.
● The work involves the close interaction of many ‘socially distributed’ process (Gibbons et al.,
actors. 1994: 156), meaning that this type of knowl-
● In light of the above, the production of knowl- edge is both supplied by and distributed to
edge becomes more socially accountable. individuals and groups across the social
● This type of research utilizes an ample range of spectrum. This assertion is based on the
criteria to apply quality controls. following attributes of Mode 2:

Table 7.1 Comparison of the characteristics of Mode 1 and Mode 2 of knowledge production
Mode 1 Mode 2
Problems proposed and resolved by a Problems proposed and resolved in the context of application
specific community
Disciplinary Trans-disciplinary
Homogeneity of research teams Heterogeneity of research teams
Hierarchical organization Heterarchical organization
Permanent Transitory
Peer quality control Quality control by diverse actors
Less socially accountable More socially accountable and reflexive
Source: Derived from Gibbons et al. (1994: 3).