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120 THE ISA HANDBOOK IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY

South America shares some of the charac- between North and Latin America. Asia’s par-
teristics of the African continent. Economic ticipation in transnational migrations is even
growth has not been declared the primary higher (1,000,000 emigrants in 2000) while
target of society, and individual success has Africa’s emigrants were 500,000 in 2000
not become the main aim of social actors (Guilmoto and Sandron, 2003: 62–83;
(Naím and Tuchin, 1999). During the twentieth Schuerkens, 2005).
century, the market mechanism had no
chance to expand because of the many small
interior markets. State intervention was the Competition and the wealth of
means for ensuring, and the consequence of, nations
the growing importance of the state. South
American societies are characterized by a The causes of inequalities between nations
stability that has been guaranteed by an have been discussed for more than two
extreme heterogeneity of economic sectors, centuries. In 1748, Montesquieu published De
societal groups and states and that has l’Esprit des Lois where he suggested that tem-
become a negative factor restraining eco- perate climates were more favourable to eco-
nomic growth, learning and competition. nomic development than tropical climates.
Traditional economic and power structures Some thirty years later, Adam Smith in his
continue to exist. With a power base in the Wealth of Nations proposed that the skills of a
latifundia, elites have been interested in group are the main factors influencing national
consumption and the maintenance of their wealth differences. More recently, Diamond
privileges and fortunes. They have been (1998) re-introduced arguments on the signifi-
closely linked to church, military and conser- cance of climatic and geographic factors.
vative forces in the United States and other There is a further theoretical explanation
Western countries. Throughout there has that suggests that national differences in
been no interest in the social integration of intelligence may play a crucial role in eco-
poor black and underprivileged white people. nomic development. Even if this approach
Elites have not favoured capitalist produc- does not seem to be ‘politically correct’,
tion and economic competition. Integrative there is some evidence for this argument.
tendencies have remained weak, despite a Lynn and Vanhanen (2002) published a book
more or less common history. Recent crises in with the promising title IQ and the Wealth of
several states have shown that new values and Nations. It is widely assumed that the peo-
attitudes of workers and managers have ples of all nations have the same average
become necessary. These groups require more level of intelligence, even if psychologists
equity and economic changes. But change know that there are large differences in aver-
will be slow in a barely favourable societal age levels of intelligence between different
environment. In contrast to Asia, a reappraisal countries. The main argument against these
of traditional values and norms that could sup- results seems to be that intelligence is meas-
port societal transformations is hardly possi- ured according to highly valued capacities in
ble. An outstanding example is the Western countries, so that it is culturally
authoritarian and paternalistic attitudes and biased, and that emotional and social capaci-
expectations and the neglect of a technical ties highly valued for example in African
culture in Cuba (Esser, 2000). In many coun- cultures do not interest these scholars.
tries, remittances sent home by transnational Nevertheless, there is evidence that intelli-
migrants are substitutes for economic gence is a determinant of earnings among
progress. Since 1970, more than 10 million individuals, a fact that has already been
women and men from Latin America have established for early adulthood and that con-
settled in the United States. This means a grow- tinues to be valid in later life phases. Since
ing cultural and economic interdependence the 1950s, these findings were extrapolated