Page 368 - The ISA Handbook in Contemporary Sociology

9781412934633-Chap-23 1/10/09 8:55 AM Page 339

SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN BRAZIL 339

theoretical paradigms: the materialist, the paradigm are: how and why are social move-
cultural and the institutional. The materialist ments created? What are the organizational
paradigm has been developed by Marxists in dimensions of the collective’s actions? What
Brazil and is based on the writings of Marx are the motivations, feelings and ideas of
and on the work of such authors as Gramsci, actors in the movement? This paradigm is
Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson and Manuel having a great influence on analyses of social
Castells (in his books of the 1970s). Most of movements in the United States and in some
the popular social movements which arose in European countries such as England. It has
Brazil during the transition from the military spawned ‘resource mobilization’ and ‘politi-
to the democratic regimes were predomi- cal mobilization’ theories. In this last theory,
nantly analyzed using the ‘class theory’ of the focus is on the investigation of the politi-
this paradigm. It emphasizes the economic cal opportunities that movements are using to
aspects of the demands that came from the improve their actions. It focuses also on the
movements and their contradictions with topics of injustice, identity and efficacy in
the capitalist model of economic production actions of the collectives. John McCarthy
prevailing in the country. Nowadays, this and Doug McAdam (McAdam et al., 1996),
approach is an important inspiration for rural and Anthony Oberschall (1993) are among
movements. the principal authors who have used this par-
The second theoretical paradigm, the cul- adigm in analyses of social movements. In
tural, is based on the phenomenological Brazil, nowadays, the theory of political
approach and on other cultural and critical opportunities is used by some authors to ana-
theories. It emphasizes the values, the sub- lyze such topics as civic citizenship, citizen
jectivity and the socio-cultural aspects of participation, belonging, empowerment, net-
mobilized groups; the authors who have used works of sociability and social ties.
it stress on the construction of group identi-
ties. In studies of social movements using
this paradigm, the authors have theorized the Categories for the analysis of social
‘identity of the movements’, with an empha- movements in Brazil
sis on the collective identity of the ‘new
social movements’. By learning from the Most Brazilian studies about social move-
practical experience of participation in col- ments in the 1970s and 1980s relied on the
lective actions, the people create this identity. Marxist approach; they emphasized social
This theory focuses on cultural perspectives classes and the economic contradictions in
on reality and seeks to understand collective society. These studies, such as Moyses
actions as belonging to a multicultural world. (1982), analyzed the popular movements as
The principal international references for this a new historical subject that claimed citizen-
theory are the analyses of Alberto Melucci ship rights, urban services and housing. The
(1996) and Alain Touraine (1973, 1978, Marxist idea of contradictions was used in a
1994, 1998, 2005). This approach has different form for examining popular move-
inspired a multicultural analysis of the move- ments. Theorists looked at urban contradic-
ments that make demands related to ques- tions rather than at class, which had been the
tions of gender, ethnicity and race. typical approach in working class analyses. It
The third model is the ‘institutional’ para- is important to spell out the difference
digm, which emphasizes the behaviour of between the concepts prevailing in popular
individuals – mainly leaders – within organi- movements and those prevailing in the syndi-
zations, and the processes of integration and calist (trade union) movement. In the popular
institutionalization of collective actions in movements, the demands usually stemmed
the political order. The central questions from bad urban conditions, failures of public
in the social movement studies using this services (health, education, transport, etc.).