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340 THE ISA HANDBOOK IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY

The demands of the working classes in the Since the second half of the 1980s, the cul-
trade unions on the other hand, were for tural theory of identity has had an important
increases in salary and better working condi- influence on Brazilian studies of social
tions. The unions were reorganizing them- movements, in particular, on attempts to
selves in new ways which became known as explain the emergence of new actors on
the ‘new syndicalism’. Therefore, we can see the political scene (Sader, 1988). These
that the panorama of social movements in movements are described as making ‘a revo-
Brazil of the 1980s not only called attention lution a day’ (Scherer-Warren and Krischke,
to the labour movement but also put the poor 1987). New themes have emerged about such
on researchers’ agendas. Theories were pre- issues as women, children, indigenous peo-
viously organized in terms of the conflicts ples, the descendants of Africans, and the
among social classes. poor in general. The Afro-Brazilian, the
Reading Antonio Gramsci’s ideas on the Indian and the women’s movements in
organization of civil society (1979) heavily Brazil have been analyzed using this para-
influenced the researchers who were using digm by Cardoso (2002), Cunha (1987),
the Marxist approach. For Gramsci, the con- Guimarães (1998), Munanga (1999) and
struction of a new hegemony is based on the Valente (1994).
strengthening of the social movements of The theme of multiculturalism gained
civil society which are in opposition to polit- importance in the study of social movements
ical society. Researchers who participated in in the 1990s (Pinto, 2000). Touraine (1994,
social movements elaborated some of these 1997, 2005) became the principal reference
analyses. They diagnosed reality and con- for analyses of social movements in Brazil
tributed recommendations for strategic during that period. He discussed the crises of
actions of popular movements. These move- modernity and the emergence of new actors in
ments had the support of priests, intellectu- society. His concept of ‘identity’ has become
als, leftist politicians, and they produced very useful for analyzing social movements
collective action that was known as the ‘New by specific minority groups.
Strength of the Periphery’ (Gohn, 1985). In the 1990s, researchers of Brazilian social
Brazilian authors such as Kowarick (1975), movements extended their analytical refer-
Singer and Brant (1981), Moyses (1982) and ence points and incorporated the field of cul-
Oliveira (1972) gave fundamental theoretical ture in a relevant way. Many researchers from
support to research, studying the social the United States and Canada exerted an influ-
movements of that time in Brazil. They ence on a wide range of contemporary theo-
4
developed the themes of social marginality retical approaches. With the changes caused
and new urban surroundings and critiqued by globalization in the world, new themes
dualistic theories. came to the fore, notably the question of par-
The Marxist paradigm is still important ticipation in civil society. The principal inter-
nowadays in Brazil, but it is no longer used by national researchers on social movements
a large number of researchers. After the analyzed these changes in society and elabo-
mushrooming of the popular movements in rated new theories. Castells (1996, 1997), for
the 1980s and the new stage in national poli- example, researched networks of collective
3
tics in Brazil in the 1990s, the number of action. Touraine (1994, 1997, 1998) studied
researchers involved in work on social move- the effects of modernity in society and
ments diminished (with a slight rise in the the emergence of new forms of solidarity
study of rural movements). Currently, there is as ways of constructing the subject in histori-
again an increase of research on new move- cal actions. Melucci (1996) discussed subjec-
ments, NGOs, the Third Sector, new forms of tivity and the role of the media in social
‘associativism’ and public policies, but most movements. Other authors such as Tarrow (1994)
researchers do not use the Marxist approach. wrote about the power of social movements.