Page 390 - A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems

398 A COMPrEHEnSIvE GUIDE TO SOlAr EnErGy SySTEMS

However, not all wildlife responses to USSE development are negative; some species,
especially generalist species that do not require specialized habitats or diets, may benefit
from human development and disturbance. For example, common raven (Corvus corax)
abundance has been positively correlated with development in the desert region of Cali-
fornia [30], potentially due to subsidies of anthropogenic resources (e.g., food, nest and
roost sites, water; [31]). While this translates to increased fecundity for the subsidized
predator [31], it is often to the detriment of native prey (i.e., desert tortoise; [32]). Similarly,
mammalian scavengers, such as coyotes (Canis latrans), may be attracted to solar energy
facilities by availability of unmanaged refuse [33] and carcasses of birds that succumbed
to operation-related injuries (e.g., collision with infrastructure) [29]. Furthermore, during
operation of a displacive solar energy facility, wildlife and plants may acclimate to devel-
opment. Wildlife species, such as invertebrates and small reptiles, may recolonize installa-
tions sited in natural or other valuable environments where vegetation is allowed to rees-
tablish in between panels, which may, in turn, attract larger predators. At a Pv facility in
South Africa, visser [29] found that raptors and terrestrial birds utilized the installation
for foraging and hunting, flocking birds used the evaporation pond as a drinking site, and
several species of birds nested on the mountings directly beneath the panels or on the
ground.

20.3.1 Habitat Fragmentation

Perhaps the least debated ecological impact of displacive solar energy is habitat loss and
concurrent habitat fragmentation resulting from its development. This impact is of par-
amount concern because habitat fragmentation is among the leading causes of global
biodiversity decline [34]. Habitat fragmentation occurs when once contiguous tracts of
natural landscape are disturbed or converted, resulting in spatially distinct patches of rem-
nant habitat [35]. Among other impacts, long-term ecological studies have demonstrated
that habitat fragmentation results in decreased species richness [36], impaired ecosystem
function, increased edge effects, and isolation of resident populations or communities
from adjacent patches [37]. Hernandez and colleagues [38] found that of the USSE installa-
tions planned and under construction in the state of California, over 73% of Pv and 90% of
CSP installations were sited less than 10 km away from the nearest protected area, thereby
increasing edge effects and undermining the effectiveness of those protected areas as cor-
ridors for wildlife movement. While wide-ranging wildlife species may have the ability to
circumvent USSE infrastructure during seasonal migration or movement associated with
resource acquisition and mating, displacive solar energy projects may prohibit movement
of less-mobile wildlife species and plant propagates, thus increasing gene flow disruption
between populations [2].

20.3.2 Roads, Transmission Lines, and Fences
The roads, transmission lines, and fencing that radiate from and surround large and dis-
placive facilities contribute to habitat fragmentation and degradation and may cause a