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402 A COMPrEHEnSIvE GUIDE TO SOlAr EnErGy SySTEMS

of USSE facilities associated with power purchase agreements have emphasized displacive
environments. Ecological impacts of displacive USSE development on the biosphere likely
are exacerbated when solar facilities are sited in ecosystems with low rates of recovery from
disturbances like sensitive areas within the Mojave Desert. Ecological effects of USSE may
span the lifetime of a solar facility, from construction to decommissioning. Specifically, sit-
ing, site preparation, construction, operations and maintenance, and decommissioning of
displacive facilities all may affect ecosystem integrity. Alterations to geohydrology and micro-
climate from USSE infrastructure may disrupt the physical, chemical, and biological proper-
ties of soils, which, in turn, can affect plants, animals, and ultimately “bottom-up” ecosystem
processes and interactions. At the landscape-level, new solar energy development beyond
the built environment can disturb and fragment habitat. In terms of wildlife response to
disturbance, most often sensitive, specialist species are negatively affected, while general-
ist species typically benefit. Further, invasive plant species often thrive on disturbance and
may outcompete native plant species not adapted to disturbance following environmental
perturbations. Habitat fragmentation from solar energy infrastructure, including roads, may
reduce animal movement and dispersal capacity near solar facilities, which may, in turn,
lead to decreased gene flow among subpopulations. Plants and animals may be affected
by displacive development directly (e.g., mortality) and indirectly (e.g., displacement). In
general, studies on direct or indirect effects of infrastructure associated with solar energy
on biota are few, but current research efforts will soon lead to an influx of literature on this
subject. However, studies have shown that displacive solar energy projects may cause mor-
tality and extirpation of some species. Assessment of the true sustainability of solar energy
hinges on understanding both environmental benefits and costs to the biosphere. Engineer-
ing focused on capturing the full potential of integrated solar and the design of solar energy
to support positive technological and ecological outcomes simultaneously will contribute to
conservation of the biosphere and greater sustainability for humans.

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