Page 92 - A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems

Chapter 5 • Sustainable Solar Energy Collection and Storage 87

supplies in both homes and businesses, and account for approximately 3% of energy usage
throughout the region [14,16]. The use of diesel generators causes air pollution through
the emission of particulates and NO x gases, which contribute to climate change, and can
cause serious health problems, such as asthma and lung cancer. Furthermore, the cost of
electricity generation is approximately twice that of solar PV microgrids over the lifetime
of systems [17,18].
Only ∼30% of the population of SSA had regular access to electricity in 2014, although
that number is rising [16]. Political instability, poorly maintained and inadequate
infrastructure, and unaffordable tariffs are major barriers to widespread electricity access.
rural electricity access is very low: in Angola and Chad, less than 5% of the rural population
have access to electricity, and electrification has not kept pace with population growth
(Fig. 5.5). The International Energy Agency projects that, despite major improvements to
electrification across SSA, more than 500 million people living in rural areas will still be
without electricity in 2040 [16].
Outside investment in Africa’s energy system, particularly from China and USA, has
resulted in increased availability of solar energy and other renewable options. The high
number of sunny hours makes solar energy an obvious choice to explore for the area, and
it is a particularly attractive option for North-eastern and Southern Africa, where annual
−3
solar radiation ranges between 2400 and 2800 (kW h) m (Fig. 5.6) [16,19]. The solar PV
potential in Africa is shown in Fig. 5.7. With this in mind, and because of the Authors’
familiarity with the region, further discussion will generally be based on the situation in
South Africa. However, it should be noted that the purpose is not to propose South Africa
as a model solution for SSA, but to emphasise the importance of considering specific
local conditions to identify sustainable PV solutions for SSA, using South Africa as an
example.

5.3 The Circular Economy Approach

Fig. 5.8 shows the essential feature of the circular economy approach, an alternative to
current ‘take-make-use-dispose’ linear economic models. retention of materials within
the economy through recovery and regeneration of products at the end of each service
life maximizes their economic productivity, offsetting demand for primary resources and
decoupling growth from resource consumption. Circular economy is regenerative by de-
sign, and replaces the concepts of ‘end-of-life’ and ‘waste’ with ‘restoration’ and ‘resources’.
Key features include elimination of waste through industrial symbiosis, superior design,
appropriate business models, and reverse logistics systems [20]. Cost effective reverse
logistics will be a challenge in rural SSA, where technologies are dispersed over vast areas.
Circular economy represents a path for sustainable economic development. resource
efficiency, afforded by a circular economy, will yield economic, social, and environmental
benefits. The use of renewable energy is also an important feature of circular economy
[21]. In light of the rapid increase in population of a working age, the resulting burden
on the land and natural resources, and current heavy reliance on fossil fuels in SSA, the