Page 110 - An Introduction to Political Communication Fifth Edition

Intro to Politics Communication (5th edn)-p.qxp 9/2/11 10:55 Page 89

ADVERTISING
margarine is more than an oily spread. And in so far as commodities take on
these meanings, advertising is the most important means available to
producers for bringing them to the market.
Advertisements function, therefore, by making commodities mean
something to their prospective purchasers; by distinguishing one product
from another, functionally similar one; and by doing this in a manner which
connects with the desires of the consumer. As Leiss et al. put it, ‘in adver-
tising, the creators of messages try to turn signifiers [commodities] with
which audiences may have little or no familiarity, into meaningful signs that,
they hope, will prompt consumers to respond with appropriate behaviour’
(1986, p. 153).
A variety of strategies are available to advertisers in pursuing this goal.
All have in common that they import familiar (to the audience) meanings
and signifiers from outside the narrow world of the product itself, and load
them on. The products being advertised appropriate meanings from other
signifiers existing in the culture (Williamson (1978) calls them ‘meaning
systems’). For example, the advertising of soap powder is frequently
organised around the meaning system of ‘science’. In advanced capitalist
societies, ‘science’ carries with it many positive connotations – objectivity,
authority, reliability, ‘modernness’, and so on. Thus, in a soap powder ad we
frequently find a white-coated ‘scientist’ ‘proving’ the effectiveness of the
product as against others in the market. The high cultural status of the
scientist, and the scientific procedure which he (it is, usually, a ‘he’) demon-
strates, legitimises the product.
Another frequently used meaning system is that of nostalgia. In the
classic British example of this technique – the 1985 advertisement for Hovis
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bread – the product was placed in a mythical past where ‘natural’, ‘whole-
some’ techniques of manufacturing bread were used, and in which people
were honest and hard-working. These attributes – ‘naturalness’, ‘whole-
someness’, ‘honesty’ – were implied by the structure of the ad to be in the
bread. Such a strategy could only work in a culture which values nostalgia
and associates it with the attributes mentioned. In Britain in the 1980s, such
a culture was clearly thought to exist by the advertiser concerned.
Advertisements may be constructed so as to associate their product-sig-
nifiers with well-known icons from the wider culture. Perfumes, for example,
are often ‘sold’ by associating them with former models and film stars. Each
‘star’-signifier has a distinctive meaning for the audience (Beyonce is not
Elizabeth Taylor, who is different from Kate Moss, who is not Nicole
Kidman, etc.). The perfume manufacturer aspires to borrow this meaning
and thus give the product an analogous distinctiveness. This strategy is
perhaps the most commonly used, in the advertising of everything from
training shoes to banking services (Pirelli’s Sharon Stone ad, and Michelin’s
use of the Velvet Underground song ‘Femme Fatale’ reveal the subtleties of
selling tyres in modern capitalism), and may be applied not just to human

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