Page 8 - Applied Photovoltaics

5.12 Embodied energy and life cycle issues 92

Chapter 6— STAND-ALONE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS 97
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Stand-alone PV system design 99
6.3 Solar modules 100
6.4 Batteries 101
6.4.1 Types 101
6.4.2 Applications 101
6.4.3 Requirements 102
6.4.4 Efficiency 102
6.4.5 Power rating and capacity 102
6.4.6 Depth-of-discharge 103
6.5 Lead-acid batteries 103
6.5.1 Types 103
6.5.2 Plate material 103
6.5.3 Charging regimes 104
6.5.4 Efficiencies 105
6.5.5 Benchmarking and categorisation of similar use 105
6.6 Other electrical charge storage methods 106
6.6.1 Nickel-cadmium batteries 106
6.6.2 Nickel-metal-hydride batteries 106
6.6.3 Rechargeable alkaline manganese (RAM) batteries 107
6.6.4 Lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries 107
6.6.5 Redox-flow batteries 107
6.6.6 Super capacitors 107
6.7 Power conditioning and regulation 108
6.7.1 Diodes 108
6.7.2 Regulators 108
6.7.3 Inverters 112
6.8 Balance of system components 114
6.8.1 Wiring 114
6.8.2 Over-current protection 114
6.8.3 Switches 115
6.8.4 Connectors 115
6.8.5 Earthing (grounding) 116
6.8.6 Lightning protection 116
6.8.7 Metering and alarms 116
6.8.8 Battery housing and signage 116
6.8.9 Housing of electronics 117
6.8.10 Module mounting 117

Chapter 7— DESIGNING STAND-ALONE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS 125
7.1 Introduction 125
7.2 System availability 126

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