Page 110 - Artificial Intelligence in the Age of Neural Networks and Brain Computing

98 CHAPTER 5 From Synapses to Ephapsis

Most cognitive scientists and artificial intelligence (AI) researchers are dualists,
implicitly assuming separation of body and mind. Consequently cognitive scientists
are on a never ending quest to find in brain the seat of “binding” where formerly
meaningless features are combined to form meaningful concepts. Ever since
Penrose, quantum physicists are looking for an equivalent of Cartesian pineal gland,
attempting to connect mind with matter at the atomic and subatomic level. So far the
brain location for hypothetical binding process has not been located. On the other
hand, there is plenty of evidence however, for motor/sensor link at a cellular, mem-
branous, and even molecular level.
Yakov Vinnikov in his 1982 book, Evolution of Receptor Cells [9], concluded
that all sensors evolved from motor structures of 9 2 þ 2 tubules of flagellate
or ciliate cells. This includes chemoreceptors (taste, olfactory), photoreceptors
(cones and rods), and mechanoreceptors (lateral organ in fish, gravity and hearing).
He formulates a molecular theory of reception which combines “evolution of recep-
tive proteins transforming certain types of energy into biopotentials for the brain,
with their localization in the plasma membranes forming a ‘maximum grip,’ posi-
tioning these membranes with greatest adequacy to the direction of the stimulus.”
This approach grounds perception in motor action Merleau-Ponty style.
Edward Tsien on Slideshare website starts description of evolution of neural sys-
tems with a depiction of loosely organized systems of nerves with no central control,
like hydra or starfish. These animals have electrical, bidirectional synapses where
stimulation at any point spreads to cause movement of the entire body. Some cnidar-
ians, like jellyfish, can coordinate their swimming activity using clusters of nerve
cells. Jellyfish skirt must open and contract in a coordinated manner for the animal
to move. Flatworms have a ladder-like nervous system with greater concentration of
neurons in the anterior part. Enlargement of the anterior ganglia that receive sensory
input coming also from anterior portion of animal gives rise to first brains. Anterior
brain connected to a nerve cord is the basic design for all organisms with a central
nervous system. Circular worms have a more complicated nervous system, but even
with their brain removed, worms can still move, mate, burrow, feed, and even learn a
maze. Most sophisticated invertebrates, like octopus, have a large brain and “image”
forming eyes. Neural system of insects divides neuron groups into three segments.
Concentration of a variety of sensory organs on the head provides for rapid commu-
nication with the brain.
Primitive neural systems. (A) Hydra (cnidarian). (B) Sea star (echinoderm). (C) Planarian
(flatworm). (D) Leech (annelid). (E) Insect (arthropod).