Page 25 - Becoming Metric Wise

14 Becoming Metric-Wise

Edison), and use-inspired basic research (exemplified by the work of
Louis Pasteur). Actions that involve neither a search for fundamental
understanding nor any considerations of use, can hardly be called
“research”—hence the empty fourth cell.
Project leaders with a mindset belonging to the Pasteur quadrant are
said to be the natural leaders of successful interdisciplinary work (van
Rijnsoever & Hessels, 2011).
As we will occasionally refer to the nature of the scientific method
we include a short description of the ideas of Karl Popper and Thomas
Kuhn. According to Popper (1959) a scientific theory in the natural
sciences must be empirical, which means that it is falsifiable.More
concretely, a scientific theory leads to predictions. Falsification occurs
when such a prediction (i.e., a logical consequence of the theory) is
disproved either through observation of natural phenomena, or through
experimentation i.e., trying to simulate natural events under controlled
conditions, as appropriate to the discipline. In the observational
sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might
take the place of a controlled experiment. Popper stressed that if one
singular conclusion of a theory is falsified the whole theory is falsified
and must be discarded, or at least modified. If the hypothesis survived
repeated testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a
scientific theory. Yet, he writes:

A positive decision can only temporarily support the theory, for subsequent neg-
ative decisions may always overthrow it. So long as a theory withstands
detailed and severe tests and it is not superseded by another theory in the
course of scientific progress, we may say that is has “proved its mettle” or that
it is “corroborated” by past experience.
Popper, 1959.
In addition to testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a model
based on observed phenomena. This is an attempt to describe or depict a
phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representa-
tion and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested. While perform-
ing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for
one outcome over another (called a confirmation bias), and so it is impor-
tant to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias. After the
results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice
for independent researchers to double-check how the research was
performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments i.e., to