Page 66 - Berkshire Encyclopedia Of World History Vol Two

comparative ethnology 415

The awe and dread with which the untutored savage contemplates his mother-in-law
are amongst the most familiar facts of anthropology. • James G. Frazer (1854–1941)

Cross-cultural research has always been controversial, 6. Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s culture is supe-
with many anthropologists who prefer intensive field rior to all others, is found in all cultures. It tends to
research with a single culture being uncomfortable with be less pronounced among neighboring cultures
an approach that is based on library research, the use of that are similar in many ways.
secondary data, and statistical analysis and that produces 7. All societies have a basic economic concern with
broad generalizations that emphasize similarity rather control over and access to natural resources.
than diversity across cultures. Nonetheless, several 8. All societies have a clear division of labor by sex,
decades of cross-cultural research have produced a num- with some work assigned exclusively to men and
ber of important generalizations, especially significant for other work to women. Men tend to do work that
world history: requires much strength, whereas women tend to do
work that is compatible with child care.
1. About 50 percent of cultural change around the 9. Although egalitarian (relating to human equality)
world during the last two centuries can be attributed societies have existed, in the modern world all soci-
to peaceful interaction between different cultures eties are socially stratified, often into social classes,
and about 50 percent to contact through warfare meaning that not all groups have equal access to a
and domination. society’s resources.
2. The type of economy in a society is an important 10. A considerable amount of radical cultural change
determinant of how parents raise their children and throughout history is the result of religious move-
of adult personality. For example, in agricultural soci- ments. These movements often develop in times of
eties where cooperation is important, people will be societal stress and are led by charismatic figures
more compliant, and they will raise their children to often defined as prophets.
be obedient. In foraging societies where independent 11. The evolutionary ideas of the nineteenth century that
action is valued, adults will be more independent suggested that human society evolved through time
and will raise their children to be self-reliant. from a state of lesser to greater civilization have no
3. Cultural evolution has been a powerful force in merit.
human history, with more efficient control of energy
and a larger population typically leading to special- David Levinson
ization and differentiation in the institutions of a
See also Anthropology
society.
4. Maintaining a large military force to deter enemies
or potential enemies more often produces war than
Further Reading
peace. Peaceful contact such as through trading or
Ember, C. R., & Levinson, D. (1991). The substantive contributions of
participation in joint religious rituals more often pro- worldwide cross-cultural studies using secondary data. Behavior Sci-
duces peace. ence Research, 25, 79–140.
Levinson, D. (1977).What have we learned from cross-cultural surveys?
5. From a cross-cultural perspective, there is no such
American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 757–792.
thing as “female status.” Rather, female status is a Levinson, D., & Malone, M. J. (1980). Toward explaining human culture.
complex set of beliefs and behaviors, with women New Haven, CT: HRAF Press.
Murdock, G. P. (1949). Social structure. New York: Macmillan.
often having high status and much influence in Naroll, R., & Cohen, R. (Eds.). (1970). A handbook of method in cultural
some domains such as the household economy or anthropology. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press.
Whiting, B. B., & Whiting, J.W. M. (Eds.). (1975). Children of six cultures:
religion and little status and influence in other
A psycho-cultural analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
domains such as the military. Press.